Collins, Early Christian Apocalyptic Literature

AUFSTIEG UND NIEDERGANG
DER ROMISCHEN WELT

(ANRW)
RISE AND DECLINE

OF THE ROMAN WORLD
HERAUSGEGEBEN VON I EDITED BY
WOLFGANG HAASE
UND I AND
HILDEGARD TEMPORINI
TElL II: PRINCIPAT

BAND 25.6
PART II: PRINCIPATE

VOLUME 25.6
WALTER DE GRUYTER · BERLIN · NEW YORK 1988
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1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

- Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt:
Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren
Forschung.
English, French, German, Italian and Spanish.
Later volumes have English parallel title: Rise and decline of
the Roman world.
The volumes of Teil II have separate titles: Politische Ge-
schichte, Kiinste, Recht, Religion, Sprache und Literatur, Philoso-
phic, Wissenschaften, Technik.
Teilii edited by Hildegard Temporini and Wolfgang Haase.
,Joseph Vogt zum 23. 6. 1970" (28 p.) in pocket of vol. I, 1.
Includes bibliographies.
Contents: T. I. Von den Anfangen Roms bis zum Ausgang
der Republik (5 v.) - T. II. Principat
1. Rome- Civilization- Collected works. I. Vogt, Joseph,
1895- 1986. II. Temporini, Hildegard. Ill. Haase, Wolfgang. IV.
Title: Rise and decline of the Roman world.
DG209.T36 937 72-83058
ISBN 3-11-001885-3 (I, 1)
CIP-Kurztitelaufnahme der Deutschen Bibliothek
Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt:

Geschichte u. Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung I
hrsg. von Hildegard Temporini u. Wolfgang Haase. - Berlin,
New York : de Gruyter.
NE: Temporini, Hildegard [Hrsg.)
2. Principat.
Bd. 25. Religion I hrsg. von Wolfgang Haase.
6. Teilbd: 1. Auf!. - 1988.
ISBN 3-11-011894-7
NE: Haase, Wolfgang [Hrsg.)
0001 t
© 1988 by Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin 30
Aile Rechte, insbesondere das der Obersetzung in fremde Sprachen, vorbehalten. Ohne ausdriick-
liche Genehmigung des Verlages ist es auch nicht gestattet, dieses Buch oder Teile daraus auf
photomechanischem Wege (Photokopie, Mikrokopie) zu vervielfaltigen.
Printed in Germany
Satz und Druck: Arthur Collignon GmbH, Berlin 30
Einbandgestaltung und Schutzumschlag: Rudolf Hiibler
Buchbinder: Liideritz & Bauer, Berlin 61
-----~~-~-
Inhalt
Vorbemerkung v
RELIGION
(VORKONSTANTINISCHES CHRISTENTUM:
LEBEN UND UMWELT JESU; NEUES TESTAMENT
[KANONISCHE SCHRIFTEN UND APOKRYPHEN], SCHLUSS)
Band II. 25.6:
FALLON, F. T. (Medway, Mass.) - CAMERON, R. (Middletown,

Conn.)
The Gospel of Thomas: A Forschungsbericht and Analysis 4195-4251
CoTHENET, E. (Paris)
Le Protevangile de Jacques: origine, genre et signification
d'un premier midrash chretien sur Ia Nativite de Marie . . 4252-4269
LEVIN, S. (Binghamton, N.Y.)
The Early History of Christianity, in Light of the 'Secret
Gospel' of Mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4270-4292
JuNoD, E. (Geneve) - KAEsTLI, J.-D. (Geneve)
Le dossier des 'Actes de Jean': etat de Ia question et perspecti-
ves nouvelles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4293-4362
POUPON, G. {Geneve)
Les 'Actes de Pierre' et leur remaniement . . . . . . . . . . . 4363-4383
PRIEUR, J.-M. (Saint-Benezet, France)
Les Acres apocryphes de l'apotre Andre: Presentation des
diverses traditions apocryphes et etat de Ia question 4384-4414
TISSOT, Y. (Neuchatel)
L'encratisme des Actes de Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4415-4430
BovoN, F. (Geneve)
Les Acres de Philippe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4431 - 4527
GRIFFITH, S. H. (Washington, D.C.)
The Syriac 'Doctrina Addai'
[Hinweis auf den Nachtrag am Schlu!S von Band II 26] . . . 4528
VIII INHALT
DEHANDSCHlJITER, B. (Leuven)
L'Epistula Jacobi apocrypha de Nag Hammadi (CG 1,2)
comme apocryphe neotestamentaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4529-4550
SFAMENI GASPARRO, G. (Messina)
L'Epistula Titi discipuli Pauli de dispositione sanctimonii e
la tradizione dell' enkrateia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4551 - 4664
YARBRO COLLINS, A. (Notre Dame, Indiana)
Early Christian Apocalyptic Literature . . . . . . . . 4665- 4711
BAUCKHAM, R. J. (Manchester)
The Apocalypse of Peter: An Account of Research 4712-4750
NoRELL!, E. (Bologna)
L''Ascensio Isaiae' come apocrifo cristiano
[Hinweis auf den Nachtrag am SchluB von Band II 26] . 4751
WELBURN, A. J. (London)
Iranian Prophetology and the Birth of the Messiah: the
Apocalypse of Adam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4752-4794
NACHTRAG ZU BAND II. 25.4:

N.N.
Paul's Letter to the ~omans: Trends in Interpretation
1960-1986
[Hinweis auf den Nachtrag am SchluB von Band II 26] . . . 4795
Band II. 25.1:
Vorwort . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
STAUFFER, E. t (Erlangen)
Jesus, Geschichte und Verkiindigung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 130
WILCox, M. (Bangor, Wales)
Jesus in the Light of his Jewish Environment . . . . . . . . . 131-195
HoLLENBACH, P. W. (Ames, Ia.)
The Conversion of Jesus: From Jesus the Baptizer to Jesus
the Healer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196-219
LEIVESTAD, R. (Oslo)
Jesus - Messias - Menschensohn. Die jiidischen Heilands-
erwartungen zur Zeit der ersten romischen Kaiser und die
Frage nach dem messianischen SelbstbewuBtsein Jesu . . . . 220-264
INHALT IX
BIETENHARD, H. (Bern)
,Der Menschensohn" - 6 u{o<; 'tofi avepronou. Sprachliche,
religionsgeschichtliche und exegetische Untersuchungen zu
einem Begriff der synoptischen Evangelien.
I. Sprachlicher und religionsgeschichtlicher Teil . . . . . . . 265-350
PESCE, M. (Bologna)
Discepolato gesuano e discepolato rabbinico. Problemi e
prospettive della comparazione . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351-389
SANDERS, E. P. (Hamilton, Ontario)
Jesus, Paul and Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390-450
CHARLESWORTH, J. H. (Durham, N. C.)
The Historical Jesus in Light of Writings Contemporaneous
with Him . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451-476
DERRETT,]. D. M. (London)
Law and Society in Jesu's World ................ 477-564
BETz, 0. (Tiibingen)
Probleme des Prozesses Jesu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565-647
KuHN, H.-W. (Heidelberg)
Die Kreuzesstrafe wahrend der friihen Kaiserzeit. Ihre Wirk-
lichkeit und Wertung in der Umwelt des Urchristentums . . 648-793
BARTSCH, H. W. (Frankfurt a.M.)
Inhalt und Funktion des urchristlichen Osterglaubens, mit
einer Bibliographie zum Thema ·Auferstehung Jesu Christi'
1862- 1959 (in Auswahl) und 1960-1974 von H. RUMPEL-
TES (Frankfurt a.M.) sowie 1975-1980 von TH. POLA (Tii-
bingen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794- 890
Band II. 25.2:
VOELZ, ]. W. (Fort Wayne, Ind.)

The Language of the New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893-977
WILcox, M. (Bangor, Wales)
Semitismus in the New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978- 1029
BERGER, K. (Heidelberg)
Hellenistische Gattungen im Neuen Testament
[Register unten, S. 1831-1885] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031-1432
SEGERT, S. (Los Angeles, Cal.)
Semitic Poetic Structures in the New Testament . . . . . . . 1433-1462
X IN HALT
KosTER, H. (Cambridge, Mass.)

Oberlieferung und Geschichte der friihchristlichen Evange-
lienliteratur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1463 -1542
DORMEYER, D. (Munster) - FRANKEMOLLE, H. (Paderborn)
Evangelium als literarische Gattung und als theologischer
Begriff. Tendenzen und Aufgaben der Evangelienforschung
im 20. Jahrhundert, mit einer Untersuchung des Markus-
evangeliums in seinem Verhaltnis zur antiken Biographie . 1543 -1704
TIEDE, D. L. (St. Paul, Minn.)
Religious Propaganda and the Gospel Literature of the Early
Christian Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1705-1729
WHITE, J. L. (Chicago, Ill.)
New Testament Epistolary Literature in the Framework of
Ancient Epistolography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1730-1756
REICKE, B. (Basel)
Die Entstehungsverhaltnisse der synoptischen Evangelien 1758 -1791
TANNEHILL, R. C. (Delaware, Ohio)
Types and Functions of Apophthegms in the Synoptic Gos-
pels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1792-1829
BER-GER, K. (Heidelberg)
Register zu dem Beitrag oben, S. 1031-1432 . . . . . . . . . 1831-1885
Band II. 25.3:

STANTON, G. (London)
The Origin and Purpose of Matthew's Gospel: Matthean
Scholarship from 1945 to 1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889-1951
PAuL, A. (Paris)
Matthieu 1 comme ecriture apocalyptique. Le recit veritable
de Ia 'crucifixion' de l'l:p~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1952-1968
PoKORNY, P. (Prag)
Das Markus-Evangelium. Literarische und theologische Ein-
leitung mit Forschungsbericht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1969- 2035
RAu, G. (Lorch [WiirttembergJ)
Das Markus-Evangelium. Komposition und Intention der
ersten Darstellung christlicher Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2036- 2257
INHALT XI
RESE, M. (Munster [West£.])

Das Lukas-Evangelium. Ein Forschungsbericht 2258-2328
DAUBE, D. (Berkeley, Calif.)
Neglected Nuances of Exposition in Luke-Acts . . . 2329-2356
ENSLIN, M. S.t (Philadelphia, Penn.)
Luke and Matthew, Compilers or Authors? . . . . . . 2357-2388
KYSAR, R. (Reading, Pa.)
The Fourth Gospel. A Report on Recent Research 2389-2480
WHITELEY, D. E. H. (Oxford)
Was John Written by a Sadducee? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2481-2505
BEliTLER, J. (Frankfurt a.M.)
Literarische Gattungen im Johannesevangelium. Ein For-
schungsbericht 1919 -1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2506- 2568
BRUCE, F. F. (Manchester)
The Acts of the Apostles: Historical Record or Theological
Reconstruction? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2569-2603
LoENING, K. (Munster i. West£.)
Das Evangelium und. die Kulturen. Heilsgeschichtliche und
kulturelle Aspekte kirchlicher Realitat in der Apostelge-
schichte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2604- 2646
Band II. 25.4:

HuBNER, H. (Gottingen)
Paulusforschung seit 1945. Ein kritischer Literaturbericht . 2649-2840
VIVIANO, B. T., 0. P. (Jerusalem)
Paul's Letter to the Romans: Trends in Interpretation
1960-1986
[Hinweis auf den Nachtrag am SchluB von Band II. 25,5] 2841
DUNN, J.D. G. (Durham)
Paul's Epistle to the Romans: An Analysis of Structure and
Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2842- 2890
RAISANEN, H. (Helsinki)
Romer 9-11: Analyse eines geistigen Ringens . . . . . . . . 2891-2939
SELLIN, G. (Oldenburg)
Hauptprobleme des Ersten Korintherbriefes . . . . . . . . . . 2940- 3044
XII INHALT
DAUTZENBERG, G. (GiefSen)
Der zweite Korintherbrief als Briefsammlung. Zur Frage der
literarischen Einheitlichkeit und des theologischen Gefiiges
von 2 Kor 1 - 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3045- 3066
SuHL, A. (Munster)
Der Galaterbrief - Situation und Argumentation . . . . . . 3067-3134
BOUWMAN, G. (Tilburg)
Die Hagar- und Sara-Perikope (Gal 4,21- 31). Exemplari-
sche Interpretation zum Schriftbeweis bei Paulus . . . . . 3135- 3155
MERKEL, H. (Osnabriick)
Der Epheserbrief in der neueren exegetischen Diskussion . 3156- 3246
BEST, E. (St. Andrews, Scotland)
Recipients and Title of the Letter to the Ephesians: Why and
When the Designation "Ephesians"? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3247-3279
ScHENK, W. (Eppstein, Ts.)
Der Philipperbrief in der neueren Forschung (1945 -1985) 3280-3313
Rrssr, M. (Richmond, Va.)
Der Christushymnus in Phil 2,6- 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3314- 3326
Der Kolosserbrief in der neueren Forschung (1945 -1985) 3327-3364
TRILLING, W. (Leipzig)
Die heiden Briefe des Apostels Paulus an die Thessalonicher.
Eine Forschungsiibersicht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3365-3403
Die Briefe an Timotheus I und II und an Titus (Pastoral-
bride) in der neueren Forschung (1945 -1985) . . . . . . . . 3404-3438
Der Brief des Paulus an Philemon in der neueren Forschung
(1945 -1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3439-3495
BRUCE, F. F. (Manchester)
·To the Hebrews': A Document of Roman Christianity? .. 3496-3521
FELD, H. (Saarbriicken- Tiibingen)
Der Hebriierbrief: Literarische Form, religionsgeschichtlicher
Hintergrund, theologische Fragen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3522-3601
SPICQ, C., 0. P. (Fribourg, Suisse)
L'Epltre aux Hebreux et Philon: Un cas d'Insertion de la
litterature sacree dans Ia Culture profane du Jer siecle (Hebr.
V,ll- VI,20 et le ·De sacrificiis Abelis et Ca'ini' de Philon) 3602-3618
INHALT XIII
Band II. 25.5:
DAVIDS, P. H. (Vancouver, British Columbia)

The Epistle of James in Modern Discussion . . . . . . . . . . 3621-3645
BAASLAND, E. (Oslo)
Literarische Form, Thematik und geschichtliche Einordnung
des Jakobusbriefes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3646-3684
CoTHENET, E. (Paris)
La Premiere de Pierre: bilan de 35 ans de recherches . . . . 3685- 3712
2 Peter: An Account of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3713-3752
WENGST, K. (Bochum)
Probleme der Johannesbriefe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3753-3772
BEUTLER, J. (Frankfurt a.M.)
Die Johannesbriefe in der neuesten Literatur (1978 -1985) 3773-3790
The Letter of Jude: An Account of Research . . . . . . . . . 3791-3826
SOARDS, M. L. (Dayton, Ohio)
1 Peter, 2 Peter, and Jude as Evidence for a Petrine School
(with Addenda by V. OLIVER WARD [Dayton, Ohio]) 3827-3849
BacHER, 0. (Mainz)
Die Johannes-Apokalypse in der neueren Forschung 3850-3893
BacHER, 0. (Mainz)
Die Johannes-Apokalypse und die Texte von Qumran . . . 3894-3898
BERGMEIER, R. (Weingarten/Baden)
Die Erzhure und das Tier: Apk 1218-13 18 und 17 f. Eine
quellen- und redaktionskritische Analyse . . . . . . . . . . . 3899- 3916
CHARLESWORTH,]. H. (Princeton, N.J.)

Research on the New Testament Apocrypha and Pseudepi-
grapha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3919- 3968
GERO, S. (Tiibingen)
Apocryphal Gospels: A Survey of Textual and Literary Pro-
blems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3969- 3996
KLIJN, A. F. J. (Groningen)
Das Hebraer- und das Nazoraerevangelium . . . . . . . . . . 3997-4033
XIV INHALT
HowARD, G. (Athens, Georgia)

The Gospel of the Ebionites 4034-4053
HELDERMAN, J. (Amsterdam)
Das Evangelium Veritatis in der neueren Forschung . . . . . 4054-4106
SFAMENI GASPARRO, G. (Messina)
II 'Vangelo secondo Filippo': rassegna degli studi e proposte
di interpretazione . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4107-4166
BucKLEY, J. J. (Cambridge, Mass.)
Conceptual Models and Polemical Issues in the Gospel of
Philip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4167-4194
Early Christian Apocalyptic Literature':-
by ADELA YARBRO CoLLINS, Notre Dame, Indiana
Contents
I. Introduction . . . . . . . 4666
II. Definition and Typology 4669
1. Genre . . . . . . . . . 4669
2. The Genre 'Apocalypse' 4670
3. Typology . . . . . . . . . 4675
Ill. Type 1: Otherworldly Visions and Auditions 4676
1. Type 1 a: 'Historical' Visions and Auditions 4676
'Jacob's Ladder' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4676
2. Type 1 b: Visions, Auditions, Cosmic and Personal Eschatology 4678
The 'Book of Revelation' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4678
3. Type 1 c: Visions, Auditions and Personal Eschatology 4681
'Questions of Bartholomew' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4681
IV. Type 2: Otherworldly Journey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4683
1. Type 2 b: Otherworldly Journey, Cosmic and Personal Eschatology 4683
'The Ascension of Isaiah' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4683
2. Type 2 c: Otherworldly Journey and Personal Eschatology 4685
'The Story of Zosimus' 4685
V. Summary and Conclusions 4687
1. Manner of Revelation . 4688
2. Temporal Elements 4689
3. Spatial Elements 4690
VI. Related Types . 4691
1. Oracles . . . . . 4691
a) Mark 13 . . 4691
b) The 'Apocalypse of Elijah' 4691
c) The 'Apocalypse of Thomas' . 4693
d) Other Oracles . . . . . . . . . 4694
2. Testaments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4694
a) The 'Testament of Adam' and the 'Penitence of Adam' 4694
.. This article was completed in early 1978. The text has been left virtually unchanged.
The notes and bibliography were updated in 1986.
---
4666 ADELA YARBRO COLLINS
3. Individual Related Works . . . . . . 4695

a) Didache 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . 4695
b) Ascension of Isaiah 3: 13-4: 18 4695
c) The 'Apocalypse of John the Theologian attributed to John Chrysostom' 4696
VII. Conclusion . 4697
VIII. Bibliography 4698
I. Introduction
The subject of early Christian 'apocalyptic' has been a live issue in New
Testament scholarship since the publication of joHANNES WEiss' 'Die Predigt
Jesu vom Reiche Gottes' in 1892. The scholarly debates have focussed on the
relationships between Jesus' teaching about the future and Jewish 'apocalyptic'
on the one hand, and the expectations of the early church on the other. 1 The
debate was given renewed impetus by ERNST KXsEMANN's publication of two
articles on the subject in 1960 and 1962. 2 These articles provoked considerable
response in both Europe and the U.S.A. 3
In this whole discussion, as well as in the study of Jewish 'apocalyptic'
in its own right, there has been considerable confusion due to the widespread
practice of using the adjective 'apocalyptic' as a noun. Given such usage, it is
often difficult to determine precisely what the topic of discussion is. Some
helpful terminological distinctions have been suggested by MICHAEL STONE
and PAUL D. HANSON. 4 They proposed the recognition of three overlapping
but distinct entities: the literary genre e apocalypse,' e apocalyptic eschatology'
as a religious perspective and structure of thought, and 'apocalypticism' as a
sociological phenomenon.
1
For bibliography on this topic, see LARS HARTMAN. Prophecy Interpreted: The Formation
of Some Jewish Apocalyptic Texts and of the Eschatological Discourse Mark 13 Par.
(Coniectanea Biblica, New Testament Series 1. Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, 1966), 11- 12.
ERNST KASEMANN. Die Anfiinge christlicher Theologie. Zeitschrift flir Theologie und
Kirche 57 (1960) 162-85 ( = ID. In: Exegetische Versuche und Besinnungen, vol. 2
[Gottingen: Vandenhoeck u. Ruprecht, 1964] 82 -104) and: Zum Thema der urchrist-
lichen Apokalyptik. Zeitschrift fur Theologie und Kirche 59 (1962) 257-84 ( = ID. In:
Exegetische Versuche und Besinnungen, vol. 2 [Gottingen: Vandenhoeck u. Ruprecht,
1964] 105 -131).
3
See the literature cited by HARTMAN. Prophecy Interpreted, 16-17, footnote 20 and the
essays in: ROBERT W. FuNK, ed., Apocalypticism: Journal for Theology and the Church
6. (New York: Herder and Herder, 1969); the two essays by ERNST KASEMANN cited in
note 2 are included in this volume in English translations.
4
MICHAEL STONE. Lists of Revealed Things in the Apocalyptic Literature. In: Magnalia
Dei: The Mighty Acts of God, ed. FRANK M. CRoss, JR., W. E. LEMKE and P. D.
MILLER, JR. (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1976); PAUL D. HANSON. 'Apocalypse,
Genre', and 'Apocalypticism'. In: The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible Supplementary
Volume, ed. KEITH CRIM et al. (Nashville: Abingdon, 1976), 27-34.
EARLY CHRISTIAN APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE 4667
In New Testament scholarship of the twentieth century, most attention

has been given to questions of apocalpytic eschatology - a particular attitude
toward the future and the traditions and motifs used to express it. In some
cases, the history of religions approach has been used to illuminate the origin
and function of some of these motifs. 5 Although LARS HARTMAN restricted
his study to those works which he considered to be apocalypses in literary
form, his main interest was not genre, but the use of the Old Testament in
pseudepigraphical Jewish apocalyptic texts and in Mark 13. 6 Likewise, much
recent work on apocalyptic elements in Paul's letters has concentrated on his
use of apocalyptic traditions.? Monographs have been produced on individual
eschatological motifs in the New Testament and on phenomenological aspects
of revelatory motifs in early Christian literature up to the middle of the second
century. 8
This essay is concerned with the first of the three categories mentioned
above - 'apocalypse' as a literary genre. It is well-known that the genre
'apocalypse' was not an original creation of the early Christian movement.
Rather, this form of literary expression was adapted for Christian use from
the environment of the early Church. Jewish literature was doubtless the main
source, but there are important points of contact with Greco-Roman literature
as well. Thus, the genre 'apocalypse' can be defined only within the broader
context of the pluralistic civilization of late antiquity. This essay thus pre-
supposes the results of an initial attempt to define the genre in a systematically
cross-cultural study. Such a study has been done by a working group of the
'Society of Biblical Literature Genres Project' . 9 Presupposing the definition of
5 See, for example, the work of ALBRECHT DIETERICH on the 'Book of Revelation' (Abraxas:
Studien zur Religionsgeschichte des spateren Altertums. [Leipzig: Teubner, 1891]116- 22)
and on the 'Apocalypse of Peter' (ID. Nekyia: Beitrage zur Erklarung der neuentdeckten
Petrusapokalypse, 3rd ed. [Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1969]). On
the 'Book of Revelation' from a history of religions point of view, see further HANS
DIETER BETZ. Zum Problem des religionsgeschichtlichen Verstandnisses der Apokalyptik.
Zeitschrift fiir Theologie und Kirche 63 (1966) 391-409, English translation in ROBERT
W. FUNK. Apocalypticism, 134-56 and ADELA YARBRO CoLLINS. The History-of-Reli-
gons Approach to Apocalypticism and the 'Angel of the Waters' (Rev 16:4 -7). Catholic
Biblical Quarterly 39 (1977) 367- 81; EAD. The Combat Myth in the Book of Revelation.
(Harvard Dissertations in Religion 9. Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1976) 57-85.
6 HARTMAN. Prophecy Interpreted, 13-14.
7 See, for example, j6RG BAUMGARTEN. Paulus und die Apokalyptik: Die Auslegung
apokalyptischer Oberlieferungen in den echten Paulusbriefen. (Wissenschaftliche Mono-
graphien zum Alten und Neuen Testament 44. Neukirchen- Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag,
1975).
8 For example, josEF ERNST. Die eschatologischen Gegenspieler in den Schriften des
Neuen Testaments. (Biblische Untersuchungen 3. Regensburg: Pustet, 1967); jOHANNES
LINDBLOM. Gesichte und Offenbarungen: Vorstellungen von gottlichen Weisungen und
iibernati.irlichen Erscheinungen im altesten Christentum. (Skrifter utgivna av Kung!.
Humanistiska Vetenskapssamfundet i Lund 65. Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, 1968).
9 The members of the working group were jOHN j. COLLINS, HAROLD ATTRIDGE, ADELA
YARBRO CoLLINS, FRANCIS T. FALLON and ANTHONY SALDARINI. The results of the work
of this group have been published in: joHN J. CoLLINS (ed.), Apocalypse: The Morpho-
-
the genre which arose from that study, this essay intends to show which early
Christian texts can most reasonably be defined as apocalypses and what their
major literary features are. Such basic literary work is essential in arriving at
greater conceptual and terminological clarity in the whole discussion of
apocalyptic elements in early Christianity. 10
If scholarly terminology is to be consistent and meaningful, definitions
of eapocalyptic eschatology' and eapocalypticism' ought to be related to the
definition of an eapocalypse' and based on a consensus about which works
belong to the genre. This essay is meant to contribute to the development of
such a consensus.
Very little systematic study of eapocalypses' in early Christian literature
has been done. The best starting points in the older literature are the introduc-
tory essays by PHILIPP VIELHAUER and the studies of individual works by
various scholars in the second volume of HENNECKE's eNew Testament Apocry-
pha', 11 the essay by HEINRICH WEINEL on later apocalypses, 12 and M. R.
]AMES' eApocryphal New Testament'. 13
It was necessary of course to limit the scope of this essay. eEarly Christian'
has been taken to mean the first three centuries of the common era. Works
of several literary stages have been included if at least one stage can be dated
to this period. Works which are clearly Christian, but lack any other indication
of date, have been included. Passages in patristic works which treat eschatolog-
logy of a Genre, Semeia 14 (1979). See now also: ITHAMAR GRUENWALD. Apocalyptic
and Merkavah Mysticism. (Leiden: Brill, 1980) (cf. In. Jewish Apocalyptic Literature.
In: W. HAASE [ed.], ANRW II. 19,1 [Berlin- New York: de Gruyter, 1979] 89 -118);
CHRISTOPHER ROWLAND. The Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and
Christianity. (New York: Crossroad, 1982); DAVID HELLHOLM. Das Visionenbuch des
Hermas als Apokalypse. (Lund: Gleerup, 1980); IDEM (ed.), Apocalypticism in the
;\1editerranean World and the Near East: Proceedings of the International Colloquium
on Apocalypticism, Uppsala, August 12- 17, 1979. (Ti.ibingen: Mohr & Siebeck, 1983);
jOHN J. COLLINS. The Apocalyptic Imagination. (New York: Crossroad, 1984); IDEM.
Daniel; with an Introduction to Apocalyptic Literature (The Forms of the Old Testament
Literature 20; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984); ADELA YARBRO CoLLINS. Crisis and
Catharsis: The Power of the Apocalypse. (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1984); EADEM (eel.),
Early Christian Apocalypticism: Genre and Social Setting, Semeia 36 (1986); ELISABETH
ScHtiSSLER FIORENZA. The Book of Revelation: Justice and Judgment. (Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1985); MARTHA HIMMELFARB. Tours of Hell: An Apocalyptic Form in Jewish
and Christian Literature. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983).
10 So also KLAUS KocH. Ratios vor der Apokalyptik. (Gi.itersloh: Mohn, 1970), English
translation: The Rediscovery of Apocalyptic, tr. MARGARET KOHL. (Studies in Biblical

Theology, second series 22. Naperville, Illinois: Allenson, 1972) 23.
11 PHILIPP VIELHAUER. Apocalypses and Related Subjects: Introduction, and: Apocalyptic
in Early Christianity: Introduction. In: New Testament Apocrypha, volume 2, ed. by

EDGAR HENNECKE and WILHELM SCI-INEEMELCHER, trans. eel. by R. MeL. WILSON.
(Philadelphia: Westminster, 1965) 581 -607 and 608-42.
12 HEINRICH WEINEL. Die spatere christliche Apokalyptik. In: Eucharisterion, volume 2,
eel. by HANS ScHMIDT (Studien zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testa-
ments N.F. 19.2. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck u. Ruprecht, 1923) 141-73.
" MoNTAGUE R. jAMES. The Apocryphal New Testament. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1924).
--- ---
i
ical matters have been excluded, since their literary forms are quite different
from works called 'apocalypses' in ancient or modern times. The Coptic
Gnostic works have been excluded since they form a distinct body of literature
over against the New Testament and the rest of early Christian literature. 14
II. Definition and Typology
Before proceeding to a discussion of particular texts, a number of concep-

tual and procedural issues must be addressed. First of all, the major terms
used in this study ought to be clarified.
1. Genre
By 'genre' is meant a type of literature defined by certain prominent

features which occur in particular works and characterize those works as a
distinctive group over against others. The defining prominent features are
significant elements of form and content which impress the reader or listener
with the similarity among the works in spite of the unique impact and
particularities of each work.
The works constituting a genre do not have to be 'pure' in the sense that
they cannot be analyzed into smaller units. By the same token, they do not
need to be independently circulating units, but may be parts of larger works.
Paul's 'Letter to the Romans' is recognizable as a member of the genre 'letter'
even though it contains smaller literary units like thanksgivings, hymns, and
doxologies. On the other hand, we find a clearly recognizable letter embedded
in the book of Acts (15:23-29). To be acceptable as an example of a genre
a text need not ever have existed independently. The essential point is that it
have its own inner coherence and be understandable apart from its literary
context.
Questions regarding the origin of a genre, its historical development and
transformation, as well as issues of social setting and function are all important
aspects of a complete study of a literary genre. 15 The first step, however, is
14 On the genre 'apocalypse' within the Coptic Gnostic corpus, see FRANCIS T. FALLON.
The Gnostic Apocalypses, Semeia 14 (1979) 123-58. A number of the Coptic Gnostic
works have the same titles as certain of the apocryphal early Christian works; for
example, 'Apocalypse of Peter', 'Apocalypse of Paul' and 'Apocalypse of James'. In this
essay, these titles always refer to the apocryphal works and should not be confused with
the corresponding Coptic Gnostic texts.
15 ALASTAIR FOWLER. The Life and Death of Literary Forms. New Literary History 2 (1971)
199- 216; WILLIAM G. DoTY. The Concept of Genre in Literary Analysis. Society of
Biblical Literature, Proceedings, volume 2, ed. LANE McGAUGHY. (Missoula, Montana:
SBL, 1972) 413-48.
--
the identification and definition of a genre based on an analysis of the explicit

features of a particular group of texts. The scope of this essay is limited to
that first step, but its conclusions have implications for historical and social
studies as well, as will be shown below.
2. The Genre 'Apocalypse'
As is well-known, the concept of 'apocalypse' as a literary genre is a

modern scholarly phenomenon. The term comes from the Greek word for
'revelation' and its modern use was inspired by the opening words of the
New Testament 'Book of Revelation'. The opening statement of 'Revelation'
characterizes its content as revealed, but is not necessarily intended as a
designation of the form of the work.
The modern scholarly use of the term is imprecise. 16 The ancient usage
was even less precise. In ancient usage, the term had a variety of connotations
and was applied to works differing significantly in form and content. Compare
the use of the term 'gospel' for works differing as widely as the 'Gospel of
Mark', the 'Gospel of Thomas' and the 'Gospel of Truth': a narrative, a
collection of sayings and a treatise!
Given the lack of precision in both ancient and modern usage, the method
used in delineating the corpus of apocalypses in early Christian literature was
purposely inductive at the outset. Within the boundaries set for the scope of
this study, all the works were collected which have been called 'apocalypses'
in ancient times or by modern scholars. Then other works were searched out
which resembled these in form and content. The next step was to judge what
the significant elements of form and content are which unite some or all of
these into a group constituting a recognizable literary type. The following
de fin it ion was formulated on the basis of the elements judged to be signifi-
cant:
'apocalypse' is a genre of revelatory literature with a narra-
tive framework in which a revelation is mediated by an other-
worldly being to a human recipient, disclosing a transcend-
ent reality which is both temporal, insofar as it envisages
eschatological salvation, and spatial, insofar as it involves
another, supernatural world. 17
The first thing to note about this definition is that it classifies apocalypses
as one type of revelatory literature. Thus, in an apocalypse, as in other
revelatory texts, something is revealed which is ordinarily beyond the reach
of human perception. The rest of the definition indicates how apocalypses
16 See the discussion of KLAUS KocH. The Rediscovery of Apocalyptic, 13 and 18-20.
17 This definition also takes into account the significant common characteristics of Jewish,
Gnostic, Greco-Roman and Persian apocalypses; see note 9 above.
-·-
differ from other revel a tory genres. There are three characteristics which
together distinguish an apocalypse from other revelatory texts.
The first is a formal clement - the manner of revelation. Apocalypses
are distinguished by the fact that the revelation is mediated. That is, an
apocalypse does not consist simply of a divine utterance, whether directly (as
in some aretalogies) or through a human being (as in some oracles). Rather,
we have a narrative framework which describes the transmission of revelation
from a heavenly being (often an angel) to a human being.
The second and third distinguishing characteristics are concerned with
the content of the revelation. The second is that revealed content of an
apocalypse always has a temporal dimension. Often there is an interest in the
past, but the overriding concern is with the future. Furthermore, an apocalypse
does not involve the miraculous disclosure of normally unpredictable but
ordinary future events. Rather, an apocalypse discloses a future qualitatively
different from present experience. This eschatological future may involve the
entire cosmos or be limited to human existence beyond the grave.
The third distinguishing characteristic of apocalypses is that the revelation
always has a spatial dimension. The transcendent reality disclosed involves
not only a qualitatively different future, but also a qualitatively different world
not usually accessible to human perception. This 'other' realm is superior to
the ordinary world and is inhabited by beings more powerful than humanity.
These beings are thought to control the human realm either already in the
present or in the qualitatively different future.
Only those works which contain all three of these elements should be
considered apocalypses. Thus, a work which describes mediated revelation
(dreams, visions, revelatory dialogues) cannot be called an apocalypse if the
revealed content lacks either the temporal or spatial element as described
above. Likewise, a work whose content involves eschatology and the heavenly
world (some oracles) cannot be called an apocalypse if the mediated character
of the revelation is lacking.
The three elements of form, eschatology and interest in a supernatural
realm will provide the major foci for the discussion of particular Christian
apocalypses below. Another element which will be mentioned from time
to time is ethical exhortation or paraenesis. The relationship between the
eschatological and ethical teachings of Jesus was a serious problem for ALBERT
ScHWEITZER and has occupied many scholars wrestling with the whole prob-
lem of early Christian 'apocalyptic'. 18 An attempt to solve this problem is
beyond the scope of this essay. However, hortatory elements will be noted
when they are present in the apocalypses. An assessment of the role of
hortatory elements in apocalypses should be part of any attempt to resolve
the complex and significant issue raised by SCHWEITZER.
Some of the texts included at the inductive stage of this study lack one
or more of the three distinguishing characteristics discussed above. Some of
18 See the discussion in jACK T. SANDERS. Ethics in the New Testament (Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1975) 1-29.
these texts are very frequently referred to in current scholarly discussion as

apocalypses, for example, Mark 13 and the 'Apocalypse of Elijah'. Since they
do share one or more significant characteristics with the apocalypses they are
discussed briefly near the end of the essay as 'related types'.
There are thirteen early Christian works which circulated as in-
dependent, unified writings, and which fit the above definition of an apoca-
lypse: the New Testament 'Book of Revelation', the 'Apocalypse of Peter', 19
the 'Shepherd of Hermas', 20 the 'Apocalypse of Paul',2 1 the 'Questions
of Bartholomew', 22 'Jacob's Ladder', 23 the 'Apocalypse of St. John the
Theologian', 24 the 'Apocalypse of Esdras', 25 the 'Apocalypse of the Virgin
19 The Greek text of the 'Apoc Peter' is available in ERICH KLOSTERMANN, Apocrypha I.
Reste des Petrus-Evangeliums, der Petrus-Apokalypse und des Kerygma Petri ... (Kleine
Texte fiir Vorlesungen und Obungen 3. Bonn: Marcus, 1903). An English translation is
available in: HENNECKE- ScHNEEMELCHER, New Testament Apocrypha, 2, 668- 83).
'- 0 The Greek text is available in MOLLY WHITTAKER, Der Hirt des Hermas: Die apostoli-
schen Vater, volume 1. (Griechische Christliche Schriftsteller 48. Berlin: Akademie, 1956).
For a German translation, see MARTIN DmEuus, Der Hirt des Hermas. (Handbuch zum
Neuen Testament Supplementband. Tiibingen: Mohr, 1923); English, KIRSOPP LAKE. The
Shepherd of Hermas. In: The Apostolic Fathers, volume 2. (Loeb Classical Library.
London: Heinemann, 1930).
21 The Greek text of the 'Apoc Paul' may be found in: CoNSTANTINUS VON TISCHENDORF.
Apocalypses apocryphae: Mosis, Esdrae, Pauli, Johannis, item Mariae dormitio. (Leipzig:
Mendelssohn, 1866; reprinted in 1966) 34-69. For an English translation, see HEN-
NECKE- SCHNEEMELCHER. New Testament Apocrypha, 2, 755-98.
22
Jerome ('Commentary on Matthew', prologue) and the Gelasian Decree mention a
'Gospel of Bartholomew' among apocryphal writings. In the surviving manuscripts, two
apparently distinct works are attested, each associated with the disciple Bartholomew.
One is extant only in Coptic and is entitled the 'Book of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ
by Bartholomew the Apostle'. The other is entitled the 'Questions of Bartholomew' and
is attested in Latin, Greek and Slavonic. Both works were classified with gospel literature
by HENNECKE and SCHNEEMELCHER, presumably because of the ancient references to a
'Gospel of Bartholomew'. By far the greater portion of each work, however, is devoted
to events after the resurrection of Jesus. This characteristic makes their definition as
'gospels' questionable. 'Ques Bart' is devoted to the mediation of revelation in vision
and dialogue form. Since it fits the definition given above in other respects as well, it
has been defined as an 'apocalypse' in this essay. An English translation may be found
in HENNECKE- ScHNEEMELCHER. New Testament Apocrypha, 2, 484-503.
23 'Jacob's Ladder' is clearly Christian in its present form. The work seems to be a Christian
redaction of an older Jewish work and so is usually included in studies of the Jewish
pseudepigrapha (see the introduction and English translation by H. G. LuNT. Ladder of
Jacob, The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha [ed. ]. H. CHARLESWORTH. Garden City:
Doubleday, 1985) 2, 401 -411; see also jAMES. The Apocryphal New Testament,
96 -103).
24 Edited by TISCHENDORF. Apocalypses apocryphae, 70-94. An English translation is
available in: The Ante-Nicene Fathers (ed. ALEXANDER RoBERTS and jAMES DoNALDSON.
Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1885) vol. 8, pp. 582- 86.
2' 'Apoc Esdras' is a work distinct from those usually designated 4, 5 and 6 Ezra. The
Greek text was published by TISCHENDORF (Apocalypses apocryphae, 24- 33). See now
0. WAHL. Apocalypsis Esdrae, Apocalypsis Sedrach, Visio Beati Esdrae (Pseudepigrapha
Veteris Testamenti Graece 4. Leiden: Brill, 1977). A recent introduction and English
-·
EARLY CHRISTIAN APOCALYPTIC: LITERATURE 4673
Mary', 26 the 'Story of Zosimus', 27 the 'Apocalypse of the Holy Mother of

God Concerning the Punishments', 28 the 'Mysteries of St. John the Apostle
and Holy Virgin', 29 and the eApocalypse of Sedrach'. 30 There is a further
work, the 'Book of Elchasai', extant only in fragments, which would probably
fit the above definition if the entire work were known. 31
Besides these entire works, there are eleven passages contained within
larger early Christian writings which fit the definition of an 'apocalypse' given
above. These passages may or may not have existed independently before their
incorporation into their present contexts. The question of their independent
circulation is immaterial for the purposes of this essay. The crucial point is
that these passages are coherent units which can be studied apart from their
present literary contexts. The eleven passages in question are: the Testament
translation are those of MICHAEL E. STor--;L Creek Apocalypse of Ezra. In: The Old
Testament Pscudepigrapha (1983) 1, 561 -79. A recent German translation is that of
U. B. MuLLER. Die griechische Ezra-Apokalypse. In: Judische Schriften aus hellenistisch-
romischer Zeit 5.2. (Gutersloh: Mohn, 1976) 85-- 102. The work is a Christian composi-
tion which makes use of (a) Jewish source(s).
26 'Apoc Mary' is extant only in Ethiopic (the text was edited by MARIUS CHAINE, who
also furnished a Latin translation, 'Apocalypsis seu Visio Mariae Virginis'. Apocrypha
de B. Maria Virgine. (Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium, Scriptores Aethio-
pici 1.7. Rome: Luigi, 1909). The 'Apoc Mary' is dependent to a large extent on the
'Apoc Paul'; see HIMMELFARB. Tours of Hell, 19-21,158-9.
27 The 'Story of Zosimus' is extant in Greek, Syriac, Ethiopic, Slavonic and Arabic. The
Greek text was edited by MoNTAGUE R. jAMES. Apocrypha Anecdota (Texts and Studies
2.3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1893) 96-108. An English translation is
available in: The Ante-Nicene Fathers, volume 10, ed. ALLAN MENZIES. (Grand Rapids,
Michigan: Eerdmans, 1951) 220-24. The Greek version is clearly Christian in its present
form. Some scholars are inclined to posit a Jewish original. The Syriac version has been
introduced and translated recently by ]. H. CHARLESWORTH. History of the Rechabites.
In: The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 2, 443-61. See also IDEM. The History of the
Rechabites. Vol. I: The Greek Recension (SBL Texts and Translations 17. Atlanta:
Scholars Press, 1982).
28 The 'Apoc Moth God' is extant in Greek, Slavonic and Ethiopic, and is quite distinct
from the 'Apoc Mary'. One of the extant Greek manuscripts was published by jAMES.
Apocrypha Anecdota, 115-26. An English translation was published under the rather
misleading title of 'The Apocalypse of the Virgin' in: The Ante-Nicene Fathers, 10,
169-74. See the discussion in: HIMMELFARB. Tours of Hell, 23-24, 159-60.
29 'Myst John' is extant only in one Coptic manuscript edited by E. A. W. BuDGE. Coptic
Apocrypha in the Dialect of Upper Egypt. (London: Printed by order of the Trustees of
the British Museum, 1913) 59-74; English translation provided on pp. 241-57.
30 The 'Apoc Sedrach' is attested by a single Greek manuscript published by jAMES.
Apocrypha Anecdota, 127-37. Opinions have varied widely on the date, unity and
original provenance (Jewish or Christian) of 'Apoc Sedrach' (see CHARLESWORTH.
The Pseudepigrapha and Modern Research, 178- 82). An English translation has been
provided in: Ante-Nicene Fathers, 10, 175-80. See now the new introduction and
translation by S. AGOURIDES. Apocalypse of Sedrach. In: The Old Testament Pseudepigra-
pha, 1, 605 -13.
31 An English translation of the fragments of the 'Book of Elchasai' is given in: HEN-
NECKE- SCHNEEMELCHER. New Testament Apocrypha, 2, 745-50.
-
of the Lord 1: 1 - 14, 32 5 Ezra 2:42-48, 33 the Testament of Isaac 2- 3 a and

5-6, the Testament of Jacob 1-3 a and 5, 34 the Book of the Resurrection of
Jesus Christ by Bartholomew the Apostle 8 b -14 a and 17 b -19 b, 35 the
Ascension of Isaiah 6- 11, 36 the Apocalypse of James, and the <Martyrdom
of Perpetua and Felicitas' 11: 1-13: 8Y
32 The'Testament of the Lord' is a fifth century Syriac work on church order in the form
of a discourse of the risen Lord to his disciples. Chapters 2-14 of book one treat the
last things. The text is available in: IGNATIUS RAHMANI. Testamentum domini nostri Jesu
Christi. (Moguntiae: Kirchheim, 1899). Also attested is a related Ethiopic work (text
published by Louis GUERRIER. Le Testament en Galilee de notre seigneur Jesus-Christ.
[Patrologia orientalis 9.3. Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1913]) and a Latin fragment (jAMES.
Apocrypha Anecdota, 151- 54). An English translation of the Syriac work may be found
in: jAMES CooPER and ARTHUR MAcLEAN. The Testament of Our Lord. (Edinburgh: T.
and T. Clark, 1902).
33 The Latin text may be found in: R. L. BENSLY. The Fourth Book of Ezra. (Texts and
Studies 3.2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1895; reprinted in 1967). An English
translation is available in HENNECKE-SCHNEEMELCHER. New Testment Apocrypha, 2,
689-95. See now the new English translation by B. M. METZGER. The Old Testament
Pseudepigrapha, 1, 528.
34 The ancient lists of apocryphal works contain no references to a 'Testament of Isaac'
or a 'Testament of Jacob'. The 'Apostolic Constitutions' (6: 16) refers to the apocryphal
books of the three patriarchs; this may be an allusion to 'Testaments of Abraham, Isaac
and Jacob'. The Jewish 'Testament of Abraham' is not actually a testament; one portion
is a legend, the other an apocalypse (see JoHN J. CoLLINS. The Jewish Apocalypses,
Semeia 14 (1979) 42. 'Test Isaac' and 'Test Jacob' are clearly Christian, at least in their
present form. Like 'Test Abraham', they both focus on the death of the patriarch and
involve a heavenly journey which he experiences before death. Unlike 'Test Abraham',
the other two works contain the leave-taking and exhortation typical of the genre
'testament'. As entire works, 'Test Isaac' and 'Test Jacob' are testaments. They each
contain, however, two passages which fit the definition of an apocalypse given above.
For bibliography on these works see: CHARLESWORTH. The Pseudepigrapha and Modern
Research, 123-25 and 131-33. See also the new translations based on the Coptic
version by K. H. KuHN, in: The Apocryphal Old Testament (ed. H. F. D. SPARKS.
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984) 423-52 and the 'Introduction', by E. P. SANDERS and
the introductions and translations based on the Arabic version by W. F. STINESPRING in:
The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 1, 869, 903- 18.
35 The "Book of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ by Bartholomew the Apostle' was discussed
briefly above in note 22. One nearly complete Coptic recension of the work is known
(text and translation may be found in BuDGE. Coptic Apocrypha, 1-48 and 179- 215),
as well as two other fragmentary ones (translation in BuDGE. Ibid, 216-30). Since the
beginning of even the most complete recension is lost, the literary form of the work as
a whole is difficult to determine. In any case, it contains two passages which fit the
definition of an 'apocalypse' proposed in this essay.
36 Texts and translation available in R. H. CHARLES. The Ascension of Isaiah. London:
Black, 1900. See now also M. A. KNIBB, Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah, The Old
Testament Pseudepigrapha, 2, 143-76. The translation of R. H. CHARLES has been
revised by J. M. T. BARTON. The Ascension of Isaiah, in: The Apocryphal Old Testament,
775-812.
17
The ·Apocalypse of James' is contained in a 'Coptic Encomium on St. John the Baptist'
which is attributed to St. John Chrysostom. The passage in question (lOa- 16b) is put
forth by the author of the encomium as an old document which he found in the library
-·-
3. Typology
Now that the scope of early Christian texts covered by the definition of
an 'apocalypse' has been determined, the next step is to see whether these
texts can be grouped into subtypes according to variations in form and
content. According to the definition given above, all apocalypses share the
formal characteristic that the revelation they contain is mediated. The early
Christian apocalypses may be divided into two basic subtypes according to
the way in which the revelation is mediated. Modes of revelation which occur
in these texts include (1) visions - in which the revealed content is shown
to the human recipient of revelation, the visionary or seer; (2) epiphanies -
in which the emphasis is on the appearance of the mediator of the revelation
to the visionary; (3) auditions - in which the human recipient hears the
revealed content; auditions may be the form of (a) a dialogue between the
revealer and the recipient or (b) simply a discourse of the revealer, the mediator
of the revelation; (4) heavenly books or tablets - sometimes the content of
the revelation is written in a heavenly book whose contents is communicated
to the recipient; (5) an otherwordly journey experienced by the recipient on
which the mediator acts as guide.
The early Christian apocalypses divide most naturally into two groups -
those in which the dominant mode of the revelation in the otherworldly
journey and those in which one or more of the other modes is dominant. This
basic subdivision also applies to the Jewish, Gnostic, Greco-Roman and
Persian apocalypses. Since the best known apocalypses are not of the journey
subtype (Daniel' and the 'Book of Revelation') it was decided to call members
of that group Type 1 and the otherworldly journeys Type 2. 38
Each of these two basic subtypes may then be further subdivided accord-
ing to variations in eschatological content. As is well-known, the popular
impression of the content of an apocalypse is that it contains a systematic
review of history, usually in the form of an ex eventu prophecy, and cosmic
eschatology. More or less systematic reviews of history are characteristic of a
certain group of Jewish apocalypses. For these two reasons it was decided to
designate as Types 1 a and 2 a those apocalypses which contain a review of
history in the form of an ex eventu prophecy, cosmic eschatology and personal
eschatology. Types 1 b and 2 b are those which do not have a review of history
at Jerusalem. No title is given for the document. It is referred to here as the 'Apocalypse
of James' because it is a first person account of James, the brother of the Lord (text
and translation are given by BuDGE. Coptic Apocrypha, 136-43 and 343- 50; note that
the translation mistakenly has "I joHN, the brother of the Lord" [p. 345], whereas the
Coptic text reads i:akkobos [p. 139]). On the Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas
11: 1 -13: 8, see YARBRO CoLLINS, Introduction: Early Christian Apocalypticism, Semeia
36 (1986) 7; see also the introduction, text and translation by H. MusuRILLO. The Acts
of the Christian Martyrs. (Oxford Early Christian Texts; Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1972).
38 See JoHN J. COLLINS. Introduction: Towards the Morphology of a Genre, Semeia 14
(1979) 12-15.
302 ANRW II 25.6
-~
but do contain both cosmic and personal eschatology. Types 1 c and 2c are
those which do not have a review of history or cosmic eschatology, but do
contain personal eschatology.
Only one early Christian apocalypse belongs to Type 1 a 'Jacob's Ladder'.
Even in this case, the presence of a review of history may be explained by the
originally Jewish character of the document. No early Christian apocalypse
fits Type 2 a, which is quite rare even in the Jewish corpus.
Ill. Type 1: Otherworldly Visions and Auditions
1. Type 1 a: 'Historical' Visions and Auditions
The only early Christian apocalypse which contains a review of history

in the form of an ex eventu prophecy is 'Jacobs Ladder'.
'Jacobs Ladder'
'Jacobs Ladder' is an account of a dream-vision of Jacob based on
Gen 28: 10-22. It is extant in two Slavonic recensions. 39 The shorter recension
has no clearly Christian characteristics. The longer recension has a clearly
Christian portion at the end. The shorter recension may well represent an
older, substantially Jewish work. The shorter recension has six chapters, the
longer eight. The work contains no unambiguous indication of date.
Chapter 1 consists of the dream itself and treats the events of Gen 28:
10-15. The visionary element is expanded with a more detailed description
of the ladder: there were twelve rungs with human faces at the ends of each
rung (twenty-four in all). In chapter 2, Jacob awakes in fear and trembling
from his dream and prays for its interpretation. In chapter 3, the angel Sarekl
is sent to Jacob and chapters 4-6 (4- 8 in the longer recension) contain the
angel's discourse which interprets the dream. Both recensions end abruptly
with the end of the angel's discourse.
The work clearly fits the definition of an apocalypse given above. There
is a narrative framework which describes the mediation of revelation by an
otherworldly being (the angel Sarekl) to a human recipient (Jacob). The modes
of revelation are: a vision (1), an epiphany (3), and an audition (the discourse
in 4-6/4- 8). The mysterious, otherworldly character of the revelation is
heightened by two further elements. First, the name of the patriarch Jacob is
used pseudonymously. The use of this venerable and archaic name associates
the revelation with a respected figure of the distant past. The fear and
39
CHARLESWORTH. The Pseudepigrapha and Modern Research, 130; H. G. LUNT. Ladder
of Jacob, 401-403.
trembling of Jacob, as well as his words and deeds upon awakening, charac-
terize the dream-vision as a powerful numinous experience.
The eschatological content of the work involves a review of history which
ends with the eschatological crisis. The faithful will be persecuted, but then
the wicked will be punished, the world destroyed and the faithful rewarded
with eternal life. There are actually two types of review of history in <Jacobs
Ladder'. The first (4 ~ 6) is similar to the reviews of history in some Jewish
apocalypses. It is apparently an ex eventu prophecy of the experiences of the
descendants of Jacob/Israel. The second (7 ~ 8), found only in the longer
recension, is a <prophecy' of the ministry and death of Christ. A <prophecy'
of the coming of Christ is also found in Ascension of Isaiah 6 ~ 11. The more
general review of history found in 4 ~ 6 is unique among early Christian
apocalypses. The hypothesis that <Jacobs Ladder' was a Jewish work originally
would explain the presence of this unique review of history.
The motif of the periodization of history is present in the ex eventu
prophecy of 4 ~ 6: the twelve rungs represent the twelve times of this age.
The review of history which follows, however, is not clearly based on this
periodization. In its present form at least the review is rather obscure. Chapter
4 refers to destruction of the temple and exile; Chapter 5 to a violent king
descended from Esau who would force the people to worship idols and
sacrifice to the dead; Chapter 6 to bondage in a strange land and (in the
longer recension only) to the destruction of the kingdom of Edom and all the
~foabites.
The motif of persecution is present in the description of the violent reign
of the heir of Esau (5), in the reference to exile (6) and in the allusion to the
destruction of the temple (4). Judgment will be visited on the oppressors of
the people in the form of famine, plagues, earthquakes and much destruction
(6). In the Christian section, it is said that the coming one will destroy the
power of the godless one (or Evil One) and of idols and will cast all unright-
eousness into the depths of the sea (8). The destruction of the world is alluded
to in Chapter 8 ("when he is wounded ... the end of all corruption draws
near"). The punishment of sinners in an individual afterlife is presupposed by
the comment that those who wounded him will receive a wound which shall
not be healed forever. The personal afterlife of the righteous is presupposed
by the statement that when he is wounded, the saving draws near, and his
might and his years shall not fail forever (8).
The longer, Christian recension of <Jacobs Ladder' contains both cosmic
and personal eschatology. The cosmic eschatology is expressed in the predic-
tion of the destruction of the world. No cosmic renewal is mentioned. The
personal eschatology is expressed in the hope for eternal rewards and pu-
nishments for the followers an opponents of the coming one, respectively.
The content of the revelation in eJacobs Ladder' has not only a future
dimension but also a supernatural dimension. This supernatural dimension
characterizes both the present and the future. In the present, there is an interest
m the nature and function of the Cherubim and Seraphim. They are described
~ Jacob's prayer and the song of the Seraphim is quoted. The divine interven-
-·
tion expected in the future is attributed to the prayers of the angels and
archangels for the people (6; shorter recension only).
'Jacobs Ladder' is unique among early Christian apocalypses in its combi-
nation of an ex eventu review of history with cosmic and personal eschatology.
2. Type 1 b: Visions, Auditions, Cosmic and Personal Eschatology
Five early Christian apocalypses (probably six) belong to Type 1 b: the

'Book of Revelation', the 'Apocalypse of Peter', the 'Shepherd of Hermas',
the Testament of the Lord 1: 1-14, and the 'Apocalypse of St. John the
Theologian'. The 'Book of Elchasai' should probably be included here also
since it seems to refer to a cosmic eschatological crisis in fragment 7. The
'Book of Revelation' is treated here in detail from the point of view of literary
genre as an example of Type 1 b.
The 'Book of Revelation'
No compelling argument has as yet been proposed for dating the composi-
tion of the 'Book of Revelation' in its present from to a time other than that
attested by Irenaeus ("at the close of Domitian's reign" - Haer. 5. 30. 3). On
the basis of Irenaeus' remark and of internal evidence, the book is dated by
most commentators to 90- 96 CE. 40 The internal evidence points to the
western part of Asia Minor as the provenance of the work. It is likely that
the author made use of earlier sources in parts of the book. 41 This source
40 ANDRE FEUILLET. L'Apocalypse: Etat de Ia Question. (Studia Neotestamentica Subsidia

3. Paris: Desclee, 1963) 75; PAUL FEINE, joHANNES BEHM and WERNER G. KiiMMEL.
Introduction to the New Testament. 14th rev. ed., tr. A. ]. MATTILL, jR. Nashville:
Abingdon, 1966) 327 ~ 29; ELISABETH SCHUSSLER FIORENZA. Apocalyptic and Gnosis in
the Book of Revelation and Paul. Journal of Biblical Literature 92 ( 1973) 565; ADELA
YARBRO CoLLINS. Crisis and Catharsis, 54~ 83; 0. BbCHER, Die Joh::mnes-Apokalypse
in der neueren Forschung, above in this same volume (ANRW II 25.5) 3850~93.
41
The overall consistency of style in 'Revelation' combined with certain anomalies of style
and content is best explained by the theory that the work was composed by a single
author within a limited time, but who made use of several sources (so WILHELM BouSSET.
Die Offenbarung Johannis. [MEYER 16, 5th ed.; Gottingen: Vandenhoeck u. Ruprecht,
1896]152 ~54). R. H. CHARLES (A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Revelation
of St. John. [International Critical Commentary. New York: Scribner's, 1920]1.lxii) and
ANDRE FEUILLET (L'Apocalypse, 27) espoused similar views. HEINRICH KRAFT explained
the literary peculiarities of 'Revelation' with the theory that behind it lies a basic
document which underwent a series of redactions (Die Offenbarung des Johannes.
[Handbuch zum Neucn Testament 16a. Tubingen: Mohr, 1974] 11 ~ 12). There is little
evidence in support of this theory, which was already proposed in the nineteenth century
and rejected by commt:ntators like BoussET and CHARLES. ]. MASSYNGBERDE FORD
argued that 'Revelation' is a compilation of several sources (Revelation [The Anchor
Bible 38. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1975]). This rather mechanical view of the
material contains virtually no reliable indications of date. At most 11: 1 - 2

might be dated to about 70 CE, but the point is disputed. 42
The 'Book of Revelation' incorporates a variety of small literary units
or forms. Most of the work consists of vision accounts; 1: 9 ~ 3:22 constitutes
an epiphany of Christ who communicates seven messages to the seer. The
vision form dominates 4: 1 through 22: 5, which is essentially a series of
vision accounts. Many of these visions have an auditory element which
takes a number of different forms: for example, doxologies (5: 13, 7: 12),
acclamations (4: 11, 5:9 ~ 10, 12), victory songs (12: 10 ~ 12, 14:8, 19: 1- 4),
and beatitudes (14: 13, 16: 15, 19:9, 20: 6). To determine the literary form of
the 'Book of Revelation' as a whole, one must ask what the dominant
literary form is or how all these smaller forms are integrated into a coherent
whole.
It has often been noted that the visions of the 'Book of Revelation' are
enclosed within an epistolary framework. In 1:4 ~ 5 a we find an epistolary
prescript which is in the form typical of the Hellenistic letter (sender, addressee,
greeting). Following the greeting is a doxology (1:5b~6). The book closes
with a benediction (22: 21) which is a typical concluding element of the
conventional ancient letter. Unlike most of the New Testament letters, there
is no elaboration on either the sender or the addressee. In most of the Pauline
letters a benediction or thanksgiving follows the greeting. Only in Galatians
does a doxology follow the greeting as in 'Revelation'. The doxology of
Galatians (1: 5), however, is very brief and is actually part of the elaboration
of the greeting. The elaboration of the greeting in Rev 1: 4b ~ 5a, which refers
to God and Christ as the ultimate sources of the 'grace' and 'peace', is similar
to the type of elaboration given the greeting in the Pauline letters. Should one
conclude then that 'Revelation' is a letter of the prophet John addressed to
Christian communities and modeled on the letters of the apostle Paul, that its
controlling literary form is the letter?
Such a conclusion would be quite superficial. The use of the introductory
and concluding elements of the letter in 'Revelation' has a number of significant
implications. However, this use has a very limited effect on the actual composi-
tion and impact of the book. At most, it provides the occasion for the
transmission of the seven messages communicated in the inaugural vision of
1: 9 ~ 3: 22. The epistolary elements provide only a superficial and remote
framework for the rest of the book, the visions of 4: 1 ~ 22:5. Even on the
occasions in which the visionary form is momentarily abandoned for what
composition of 'Revelation' does not explain the overall consistency of style in the work.
This theory was also proposed in various forms by nineteenth century source critics and
later rejected.
42 See the discussion in: ERNST. Die eschatologischen Gegenspieler in den Schriften des
Neuen Testaments, 124-26. FoRD's conclusion that most of the 'Book of Revelation'
was composed prior to 70 CE (Revelation, 50, 54, 56) does not rest on sound evidence
or sound arguments. On Rev. 11: 1-2 see: ADELA YARBRO CoLLINS. Crisis and Catharsis,
64-67.
-·
appears to be an ·aside' to the reader (13: 9-10, 14: 12, 16: 15), the epistolary
style is not resumed. Furthermore, the book does not open directly with the
epistolary prescript, but with a preface or prologue (1: 1- 3) in which the
work is characterized as an apocalypsis and a propheteia.
The dominant literary form in the ·Book of Revelation', as noted above,
is the vision account. These visions reveal to the seer both present and future
realities (1: 19). The ultimate source of the revelation is God (1: 1), but it is
mediated by Christ, angels and other heavenly beings (1: 1; 5: 5; 7: 13 -17;
10: 1-11; 17: 1-18; 19:9 -10; 21:9-22: 5; 22: 6, 8, 16). In distinction from
the Jewish apocalypses, there is no indication that the author is using a
pseudonym. There is no attempt to link this John to the twelve nor to the
author of the gospel and letters also attributed to a John. Finally, the visionary
experience awakens the typical response of awe and fear in the seer (1: 17,
19: 10, 22: 8).
The content of the revelation contained in the visions is primarily eschato-
logical. I have shown elsewhere that chs. 6-22: 5 consists of five series of
vision accounts and that a common eschatological pattern is expressed in each
series. 43 This pattern involves:
1. persecution- 6:9-11,8:3-5, chs. 12-13, 16:4-7,20:4,20:9
2. judgment/destruction - 6:12-17, 11:18, 14:14-20, 16:17-20,
19: 11 - 20: 3, 20: 7- 15
3. salvation - 7:1-8, 9-17; 11:18; 15:2-4; 19:1-10; 29:4-6;
21:1-22:5.
Persecution is the primary form in which the typical motif of the eschatological
woes or crisis appears in ·Revelation'. The judgment and destruction are
executed by God, Christ and angels upon Satan, his angels, the human
oppressors of the elect, and ultimately on heaven and earth. Salvation involves
personal afterlife (6: 9-11, 7: 13- 17), resurrection (20: 4-6, 13), and cosmic
transformation (new heaven and new earth - 21: 1).
As noted above, the visions are said to reveal present as well as future
realities (l: 19). These present realities are for the most part heavenly realities
which determine the present situation of humanity and anticipate the future:
for example, the exaltation of Christ in heaven (ch. 5), the scroll with the
seven seals (chs. 5-8), the little scroll (ch. 10), the casting of Satan out of
heaven (ch. 12), the book of life containing the names of those to be saved
and the books in which all human deeds are recorded (3: 5; 13: 8; 17: 8;
20: 12 -15; 21: 27).
The ·Book of Revelation' is one of the few early Christian apocalypses
with a significant, explicit, hortatory element. The paraenesis in the work is
primarily exhortation from the mediator to the visionary. The seven messages
which Christ dictates to John and which are directed to the seven churches
consist primarily of exhortation (chs. 2- 3). This hortatory material focusses
4l ADELA YARBRO COLLINS. The Combat Myth in the Book of Revelation, 32 ·· 44.
-
on the importance of standing firm in faith and love and enduring tribulation
(2: 2-5 a, 9-10 a, 13-16 a, 19-21, 24- 25; 3: 1b- 3a, 8, lOa). The paraenesis
is reinforced by eschatological threats and promises (2: 5b, 7b, lOb, llb, 17b,
16b, 22-23, 26-28; 3:3b-5, 9, 10b-12, 21).
'ApocPeter', 'Hermas', Test Lord 1:1-14, 'ApocJn Theol' and 'Elchasai'
are very similar to the 'Book of Revelation' in form and content. The dominant
mode of revelation in each of these works is the vision or audition or a
combination of the two. None of them contains an otherworldly journey in
which the visionary is transported from place to place in otherworldly regions.
Like 'Revelation', none of these works has a review of history. On the other
hand, the eschatological content of each involves both cosmic and personal
eschatology, as does 'Revelation'. 'Apoc Jn Theol' is the only one which shares
with 'Revelation' its prediction of a cosmic renewal following the destruction
of the world. This similarity is not surprising, since there are several indications
that 'Apoc Jn Theol' was modeled on the 'Book of Revelation'. All of
these works share with 'Revelation' an interest in a normally inaccessible,
supernatural world. 'Apoc Peter' includes descriptions of places of punishment
and of Paradise. 'Hermas' expresses the belief that angels control nature and
humanity in the present. In Test Lord 1: 1-14 and 'Apoc Jn Theol', angels
are expected to play a major role in the events of the end. 'Elchasai' implies
belief in the control of the earthly world by the heavenly in its astrological
remarks. Angels play a major role in what seems to be the eschatological
crisis, the war of the godless angels of the north.
'Hermas', like 'Revelation', has a significant hortatory aspect. A conside-
rable portion of Hermas consists of exhortation and ethical instruction. As in
'Revelation', this paraenesis is given by the mediator of the revelation to the
visionary. The 'Mandates' contain much hortatory material which is transmit-
ted to 'Hermas' by the 'Shepherd' for Hermas' own benefit and that of others
(Man XII. iii. 2- 3), The 'Similitudes' contain teaching on wealth (I- II) and
on fasting and service (V). Test Lord 1: 1 -14 has a minor paraenetic element
in the Syriac version only. At the end of Christ's discourse the disciples are
urged to be wise in order to persuade those who are in captivity to error in
order to bring them to the knowledge of God.
3. Type 1 c: Visions, Auditions and Personal Eschatology
Five early Christian apocalypses belong to this type: 5 Ezra 2: 42-48,

Text Isaac 2-3 a, Test Jacob 1-3 a, Ques Bart and Resurr (Bart) 8b -14a.
'Ques Bart' is examined here in detail as an example of Type 1 c.
'Questions of Bartholomew'
As indicated above (note 22) 'Ques Bart' is normally treated as a gospel,
but should be identified as an apocalypse. There is no internal evidence for
the date of the work. F. SCHEIDWEILER dates the original form of 'Ques Bart'
to the third century, but he gives no arguments for this dating. 44
'Ques Bart' has a narrative framework in the third person. It begins with
a brief reference to the time before the passion of Jesus. Jesus responds to a 0
request from the apostles that he reveal the secrets of heaven with the remark Cl
that he cannot do so until he has put off the body of flesh. The rest of the Sl
work is devoted to his post-resurrection revelations to the apostles. After the a

resurrection, Jesus functions as an otherworldly mediator. His otherworldly li
character is emphasized by the apostles' reaction of fear at the sight of him: v
"his appearance was not as it was before, but revealed the fulness of his
godhead" (1: 3).
The major way in which revelation is mediated in 'Ques Bart' is through
dialogue between the resurrected Christ and his disciples. Here the main
spokesman of the disciples (and pseudonymous recipient of revelation) is
Bartholomew. The dialogue form is also used in 'Ques Bart' for a revelatory
exchange between Beliar and Bartholomew (4: 15, 22- 59). The dialogue form
is supplemented by visions: of the abyss (3: 7) and of Beliar (4: 12-13). The
reactions of the apostles and of Bartholomew to revelatory experiences are
described (1: 3; 3:2, 8; 4:9-10, 14, 18, 20, 48- 51) and they ask questions to
gain further revelation (1: 1, 4:7 and passim). I
The eschatological pattern noted in the 'Book of Revelation' is present
in 'Ques Bart' as well. 'Ques Bart' has something analogous to the reviews
of history present in some Jewish apocalypses. In one of the Greek recensions,
there is a reference to the belief that all history constitutes six thousand years
(1: 16/17). There is no actual review of history in 'Ques Bart', but there is
'
!\
II
I
what one might call 'paradigmatic history': accounts of the creation of the
angels (4: 25- 35), of the creation of Adam, the fall of Satan and his angels,
and the seduction of Eve (4: 52- 59). The eschatological crisis has been
generalized to an on-going spiritual struggle between humanity and Beliar
(4: 7). The eschatological turning point, the judgment, has already occurred
in Christ's victory over Beliar, Hades, the Devil and/or Beelzebub (1: 10-21).
Individual judgment and salvation are expected in the form of otherworldly
punishments (4: 37- 44) and the sojourn of the souls of the righteous dead in
Paradise (1: 28- 29).
The revelation contained in 'Ques Bart' involves a supernatural world as
well as a qualitatively different future. The interest in another, transcendent
world is expressed most clearly in the references to the angels who control
events in this world (1: 23- 27; 4:29-35, 45- 47). These angels are the agents
of a supernatural world which guides events in the perceptible realm.
'Ques Bart' has a minor, explicit hortatory element. As in 'Revelation',
'Hermas' and Test Lord 1: 1-14, paraenesis is given by the revealer to the
visionary. In the last dialogue between Christ and Bartholomew, Christ exhorts
him on chastity and instructs him to preach this teaching to all (5: 7- 9).
44 F. ScHEIDWEILER. The Questions of Bartholomew. In: New Testament Apocrypha, ed.

HENNECKE and ScHNEEMELCHER, 1, 488.
-~
EARLY CHRISTIAN APOCALYPTIC LITERATURF. 4683
5 Ezra 2: 42-48, Test Isaac 2- 3a, Test Jacob 1 - 3a, and Resurr (Bart)
8b- 14a share with 'Ques Bart' its major features of form and content. The
dominant mode of revelation in all of these works is the vision, the audition
or a combination of visionary and auditory elements. None of these texts
contains the motif of an otherworldly journey. There are important
similarities in content as well. Like 'Ques Bart', these texts do not have
a review of history or any form of cosmic eschatology. Each of them,
like 'Ques Bart', does contain personal eschatology. Each work also shares
with 'Ques Bart' an interest in a transcendent, supernatural world. This
interest is a minor element in 5 Ezra 2: 42 -- 48, where it is confined to
the role of the exalted Christ as son of God who will reward the faithful
in the next life. In Test Isaac 2- 3a and Test Jacob 1- 3a, it is said that
Isaac and Jacob had daily contact with angels. In Test Jacob 1- 3a, the
concept of the guardian angel and interest in the heavenly host of angels
are also present. Nearly a dozen different types of heavenly beings are
mentioned in Resurr (Bart) 8b- 14a. The passage manifests considerable
interest in heavenly liturgies. Michael and all the angels are said to
intercede for humanity.
None of the other texts share with 'Ques Bart' its explicit hortatory
element. 'Test Isaac' and 'Test Jacob' do contain exhortation (see note 34),
but not in the passages which fit the definition 'apocalypse'. The paraenesis
they contain is given by the patriarch to his offspring and followers, not by
the otherworldly mediator to the patriarch. The presence of this exhortation
is an aspect of the genre 'testament'.
IV. Type 2: Otherworldly Journey
1. Type 2 b: Otherworldly Journey, Cosmic and Personal Eschatology
Four early Christian apocalypses belong to Type 2 b: Asc Isa 6-11, 'Apoc
Paul', 'Apoc Esdras' and 'Apoc Mary'. Asc Isa 6-11 is treated here in detail
as an example of the subtype.
'The Ascension of Isaiah'

The 'Ascension of Isaiah' is extant in an Ethiopic version, two recensions
of the Latin version, in a Slavonic recension, and in Coptic and Greek
fragments. There is also a related Greek legend. The most debated issue has
been the question of unity. LAURENCE (the first editor of the Ethiopic text),
BuRKITT and BuRCH have argued that ·Asc Isa' is a unified composition and
that the original work was substantially identical with the extent Ethiopic
version. Most other commentators have taken the position that ·Asc Isa' is a
-·
compilation of two or more documents. 45 There are two main arguments

against unity: (1) one Latin recension and the Slavonic version contain only
the vision or ascension of Isaiah (roughly chs. 6-11 of the Ethiopic) and (2)
there are certain anomalies in the present text which seem to be the result of
editing. The address of Isaiah to Hezekiah in 4: 1 is awkwardly placed
given the announcement of Hezekiah's death in 2: 1. The account of Isaiah's
martyrdom in ch. 5 is the logical continuation of his arrest in 3: 12. It is also
odd that the announcement (1: 1- 4) that Hezekiah would tell his son about
his own vision is not fulfilled in the work. It is thus probable that there were
originally two independent documents: a Christian vision or ascension of
Isaiah which corresponded more or less to chs. 6- 11 of the Ethiopic (there
is disagreement on whether 11: 2- 22 is original or not) and a martyrdom of
Isaiah. It is difficult to determine whether the martyrdom was originally
Jewisch or Christian. Chs. 2:1-3:12 and 5: 2-14 most likely belonged to it
and possibly some parts of ch. 1. The rest are Christian additions which may
or may not have been added at the time the two works were combined. It is
not obvious that 3: 13-31 and 4: 1-18 originally belonged together. Each
passage is indirectly characterized as a vision (3: 31, 4: 19), but they are not
mediated revelation and thus differ in a fundamental way from the visions of
'Revelation'. They do contain similar eschatological expectations and so will
be discussed below with related types of literature.
The 'Ascension of Isaia' (chs. 6-11) contains no historical allusions to
aid in determining its date. A terminus ante quem is provided by Epiphanius'
reference to to anabatikon Hesaiou (Haer. 40.2). CHARLES assigned the work
to the end of the first century and FLEMMING-DUENSING to the second century. 46
The manner of revelation is a journey to heaven experienced by the
pseudonymous seer Isaiah guided by an angel from the seventh heaven (6: 13,
7: 8-9, 10: 28). The ecstatic reaction of the seer is described in some detail
(6: 10-12, 17); strength was granted to him to allow him to speak to the
angel (7: 3) and he attempted to worship the angel but was forbidden (7: 21,
so also in Rev 19: 10, 22: 8- 9).
The eschatological turning point is the descent of the Beloved (chs.
10 -11) whose mission involves the judgment and destruction of Satan and
his angels (7: 12, 10: 12). There are two allusions to the ultimate destruction
of the world (10: 12, 11: 37). In the recensions which have 11:2-22, the
account of the descent of the Beloved is expanded into a review of the ministry
of Jesus, a kind of legendary history with great emphasis on the miraculous
birth. The only form of salvation mentioned is personal immortality (7: 23,
9:7-9, 24-26).
45 LAURENCE's opinion that the work is a unity was cited and disputed by CHARLES (The
Ascension of Isaiah, xxxiv, xxxvi- xliii). The opinions of BuRKITT and BuRCH are
summarized by FLEMMING and DuENSING (The Ascension of Isaiah, 642- 43); FLEMMING
and DuENSING argue against unity, as does M. A. KNIBB. Martyrdom and Ascension of
Isaiah, 143, 147-49.
46 CHARLES. The Ascension of Isaiah, xlv; FLEMMING- DuENSING. The Ascension of Isaiah,
643. KNIBB prefers a second century date (Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah, 149- 50).
-·-
The emphasis on another, heavenly world is apparent in. the role of

the heavenly mediator and especially in the heavenly journey. The journey
provides opportunity for a description of the seven heavens, the different
kinds of angels, thrones and praises in each of the heavens, and particularly
the inhabitants of the seventh heaven. In the present time it is the wicked
angel Sammael and the angels of the firmament who determine events on
earth; the strife on earth reflects the strife among the angels (7: 9- 12).
There is also mention of the heavenly books in which human deeds are
recorded (9: 19- 23).
'Apoc Paul', 'Apoc Esdras' and 'Apoc Mary' are very similar to Asc Isa
6-11 in form and content. All four texts have a common dominant mode of
revelation, the otherworldly journey. There are significant similarities in con-
tent as well. Like Asc Isa 6 -11, none of the other three texts has a review
of history. All four apocalypses contain cosmic as well as personal eschatology.
Only 'Apoc Paul' predicts both destruction of the world and cosmic renewal.
The other three predict only cosmic destruction. Like 'Asc Isa', the other three
texts manifest pronounced interest in another, supernatural world. Each has
descriptions of the places beyond this world where the good are rewarded
and the wicked punished; in 'Apoc Paul' and 'Apoc Mary' these descriptions
are extensive. The 'Apoc Paul' also expresses the belief that the earthly realm
is controlled by otherworldly beings in the present.
2. Type 2 c: Otherworldly Journey and Personal Eschatology
Nine early Christian apocalypses constitute Type 2 c: Martyrdom of

Perpetua and Felicitas 11: 1-13: 8, Test Isaac 5-6, Test Jacob 5, 'Zosimus',
'Apoc Moth God', 'Apoc James', 'Myst John', Resurr (Bart) 17b -19b and
'Apoc Sedrach'. 'Zosimus' is treated in detail below as an example of the
subtype.
The 'Story of Zosimus'

The 'Story of Zosimus' is extant in Greek, in Syriac (under the title 'The
Legend of the Sons of Jonadab, Son of Rechab, and the Blessed Isles'), in
Ethiopic (The History of the Blessed Men Who Lived in the Days of Jeremiah
the Prophet'), Slavonic and Arabic. This group of related traditions is quite
distinct from the 'Visions of Zosimus', which is an encyclopaedic treatise on
alchemy attributed to Zosimus of Panopolis (third century CE)Y The different
versions of the narrative vary considerably; the discussion of literary form
and content below is based on the Greek text.
47 See ALBERT M. DENIS. Introduction aux pseudepigraphes grecs d'Ancien Testament.

(Studia in Veteris Testamenti Pseudepigrapha 1. Leiden: Brill, 1970) 95.
-- -
According to NAu, 48 the form of the work common to all the Syriac
manuscripts could not be earlier than the fifth century, because it speaks with
insistence of the holy Trinity, the blessed virgin Mary as mother of God, and
of hierarchies of angels and archangels. According to ]AMES, 49 the present
form of the Greek text dates to the fifth or sixth century, but behind that text
stands an earlier work, perhaps a Jewish apocalypse. That work, or at least
traditions also found in it, existed prior to 250 CE, since such traditions are
found in Commodian.
The work refers to itself as a testament in ch. 21, but its only feature
similar to those of the testament form is the fact that it ends with an account
of Zosimus' death. The last sentence of ch. 21 (which contains the testament
reference) and ch. 1 are in the third person while the material in between is
in the first person. It is thus doubtful whether the designation of the work as
a testament is original. In any case, even in its present form the document
opens in a way more typical of an apocalypse than of a testament: Zosimus
prays for a special revelation and an angel appears to him to say that his
request will be granted (ch. 1). The text then shifts into the first person (ch.
2) and Zosimus begins his description of his miraculous journey to another
world, the land of the blessed ones. The journey is made possible by divine
power acting through a camel (2, 17), a storm wind (2, 17), two trees (3, 16)
and an angel (18). There is no reason to think that the name Zosimus is
used pseudonymously. The transcendent nature of the journey experience is
emphasized by the statement that, prior to the appearance of the angel and
the journey, Zosimus had eaten no bread, drunk no wine, and seen no human
face for forty years (1). The transcendent character of the mysterious land is
indicated by the blessings spoken over Zosimus by the storm wind, the camel
( 17) and the angel (18) on his return journey.
The elements of the eschatological pattern are present, but in such a way
that the emphasis is shifted from the future to the present. There are two
stories, each a kind of pre-history, which serve to illuminate the present. One
is the story of how the blessed ones came to be in this blessed land (7- 9).
They, the Rechabites, alone heeded Jeremiah's call to repentance and were
rewarded by removal to this Paradise-like place. The other is the story of the
fall of Adam and Eve (6, 19). The eschatological crisis has become an on-
going struggle with Satan (18- 20, 21 a). The victory over Satan (judgment/
destruction) is not described as a future event, but as an accomplishment of
Zosimus with heavenly assistance (18a, 20b). Such a victory is theoretically
possible for all, especially those who live ascetically in the desert (21a). There
is a brief reference to the end (to telos) when human beings from the world
would join the Rechabites in the land of the blessed (5). Individual afterlife
4s F NAu. La legende inedite 'Des fils de jonadab, fils de Rechab, et les lies Fortunees' -
texte syriaque (attribue a Jacques d'Edesse) et traduction franpise. Revue semitique
d'epigraphie et d'histoire ancienne 6 (1898) 264.
49 JAMES. Apocrypha Anecdota, 93-95.
--
is presupposed. The happy death of the blessed ones is described: the soul is
received by angels, while those who remain look on. They see the form of
the soul full of light and neither male nor female. The angels take the soul
above the firmaments where it is met by the Son of God and taken to the
Father. It does obeisance to him and then goes to its assigned place (13 -15).
The death of Zosimus (and, by implication, the deaths of all who live like
him) is said to have been like that of the blessed ones (21- 22).
In 'Zosimus', interest in another, transcendent world is evident in the
description of the land of the blessed and of the barriers which surround it
(end of ch. 2, ch. 3, end of ch. 4, ch. 6, end of ch. 9, chs. 10, 12). 'Zosimus'
also contains descriptions of the nature, life style and death of the Rechabites.
These people are, in effect, otherworldly beings who provide a model for
human beings in the present in this world. Dwelling with angels is thought
to be possible in the present time (18).
Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas 11: 1-13: 8, Test Isaac 5-6, Test
Jacob 5, 'Apoc Moth God', 'Apoc James', 'Myst John', Resurr (Bart)
17b -19b, and 'Apoc Sedrach' share important factors of form and content
with 'Zosimus'. In all of these apocalypses, the dominant mode of revelation
is the otherworldly journey. In terms of content, none of these texts has a
review of history or any form of cosmic eschatology. All have in common
some form of personal eschatology. Each also has an interest in a transcendent
realm normally inaccessible to the senses. Mart Perpetua and Felicitas
11: 1-13: 8 describes "what appeared to be a garden" beyond this world to
the East and within it "a place whose walls seemed to be constructed of
light," apparently the heavenly temple. Test Isaac 5-6 descr-ibes the places of
punishment of sinners and the beings who carry out the punishments; Test
Jacob 5 emphasizes the role of the punishing otherworldly beings. 'Apoc Moth
God' contains descriptions of otherworldly punishments and the beings in
charge of them, like Test Isaac 5-6. 'Apoc James' describes Paradise and its
environs. 'Myst John' manifests great interest in heavenly beings and events
which determine occurrences in this world. Resurr (Bart) 17b- 19b describes
various otherworldly regions. 'Apoc Sedrach' implies that angels can assist
humanity in this life and the next.
V. Summary and Conclusions
The early Christian apocalypses vary considerably and are rather evenly
distributed over four of the subtypes listed above (1b, 1c, 2b, 2c). The most
common subtype is 2c, the otherworldly journey with no review of history
and expressing only personal eschatology.
A discussion of the origin and history of the genre 'apocalypse' in early
Christian literature is beyond the scope of this essay. A few observations
related to those issues can, however, be made. The evidence is against the
------
theory of an historical development from the visions/auditions subtype to the

otherworldly journey subtype. There are early examples of each: 'Revelation'
(visions/auditions, first century) and 'Asc Isa' (otherworldly journey, first or
second century). There is evidence that the genre was used more often in the
earlier portion of the relevant period to express cosmic as well as personal
eschatology. Of the early Christian apocalypses involving cosmic eschatology,
one can be dated to the first century ('Revelation'); one to the first or second
(Acs Isa' 6 -11); and two, probably three to the second century ('Apoc Peter',
'Hermas', 'Elchasai'). None of the texts expressing personal eschatology only
can be dated to the first century. Only two can be dated in the second (5 Ezra
2:42-48 and Mart Perpetua and Felicitas 11: 1-13: 8), and only one to the
third (Ques Bart'). The other works of subtypes 1c and 2c are very difficult
to date. It is possible that none of the others date to the first three centuries.
Thus, there are four, probably five, apocalypses expressing cosmic eschatology
dating to the first two centuries, while only two expressing personal eschato-
logy can be dated to the same period.
In spite of the variety of types, all the texts discussed share certain
significant characteristics. These characteristics fall under the three categories
of manner of revelation, temporal elements and spatial elements.
1. Manner of Revelation
In each case the revelation is mysterious and transcendent and is mediated

by an otherworldly being. The mode of revelation has a visionary aspect in
most of the texts either in the form of the simple vision account or as a major
aspect of the otherworldly journey form. The mode of revelation usually has
an auditory aspect as well in the form of a revelatory dialogue or a discourse
of the mediator. In only one text ('Apoc Sedrach') is the auditory mode of
revelation the only explicit one.
The heavenly mediator is the resurrected Christ in some texts. An angel
fills this role just as often.
Pseudonymity is not a constant factor. In two, probably three, texts the
actual name of the human recipient of the revelation is used (Revelation',
'Hermas', 'Elchasai'). In two other cases, fictitious names were probably used
(Zosimus', Resurr [Bart] 17b -19b). In neither case is the fictitious name that
of a well-known, venerable figure of the distant past, as is usually the case in
pseudonymous writing. The fact that these works share other, more fundamen-
tal characteristics with the pseudonymous Christian apocalypses leads to the
conclusion that pseudonymity is not a determining characteristic of the genre.
In some cases, the recipient of the revelation fasts or prays before the
revelatory experience, showing his or her need for revelation and dependence
on otherworldly powers. When the revelatory experience is initiated, the
visionary's reaction is often described as awe, fear or helplessness. These two
elements are frequently, but not always present. They both serve to heighten
the impression of the transcendent character of the revelation.
EARLY CHRISTIAN APOCALYPTIC LITERATURF. 4689
In a few apocalypses (Revelation', 'Hermas', Test Lord 1: 1- 14 and

'Ques Bart'), there is explicit exhortation given by the mediator to the
visionary. Since this clement is so rare, explicit paraenesis cannot be
considered a significant clement of the literary genre 'apocalypse' in early
Christian literature. However, much of the content of apocalypses can and
probably did have an implicit hortatory function. This is especially clear
in the elaborate descriptions of otherworldly rewards and punishments
which are associated with specific kinds of behaviour in this life (see, for
example, 'Apoc Peter').
2. Temporal Elements
The temporal elements shared by the early Christian apocalypses involve

a limited interest in the past and certain expectations of the future. It has
already been pointed out that the more or less systematic review of history
found in a number of Jewish apocalypses is virtually absent in the early
Christian apocalypses. Only 'Jacob's Ladder', which may be a Christian
adaptation of a Jewish work, has such a review. In that work, as in the Jewish
texts, the review is part of the eschatological pattern. The events of the past
which are recounted lead up and into the final crisis and resolution. As in the
Jewish apocalypses, the review of history in 'Jacob's Ladder' is in the form
of an ex eventu prophecy. Another early Christian apocalypse (Asc lsa 6 -11)
uses the device of ex eventu prophecy. In this case the device is not used for
a review of history, but simply to 'predict' the descent, ministry and ascent
of Christ.
Certain other Christian apocalypses express a somewhat different interest
in the past. In these works certain past events are selected and recounted,
explicitly as past, because of their significance for the present. They are told
in isolation, not as part of a series of events. Most often these paradigmatic
events involve Adam or Christ. This limited interest in the past is manifested
by Test Isaac 2-3a, Test Jacob 1-3a, and 'Ques Bart' (all Type lc), in 'Apoc
Paul' and 'Apoc Esdras' (Type 2b) and in 'Myst John' and 'Apoc Sedrach'
(Type 2c).
Expectations of the future vary a great deal in the corpus, but two groups
can be distinguished:
(1) Ten, probably eleven, early Christian apocalypses express both cosmic
and personal eschatology. Three of these predict both cosmic destruction and
renewal - 'Revelation' and 'Apoc Jn Theol' (both Type 1b) and 'Apoc Paul'
(Type 2b). Seven refer only to the destruction of the world - 'Jacob's Ladder'
(Type la); 'Apoc Peter', 'Hermas', Test Lord 1: 1-14 (all Type 1b); and Asc
Isa 6-11, 'Apoc Esdras' and 'Apoc Mary' (all Type 2b). The 'Book of Elchasai'
probably belongs in this group also because of its allusion to a war of the
angels of the north. By analogy with the 'Book of Daniel', this war may be
interpreted as a political eschatological crisis with cosmic implications. All of
these works also express personal eschatology in the form of the hope for a
personal afterlife.
(2) In the fourteen other apocalypses, the traditional eschatological ele-
ments of crisis, judgment and destrus;:tion, where they occur at all, have been
transformed to express a turning point in the past or an on-going process in
the present. Future hope in these works is thus limited to an expectation of
personal afterlife. These works are 5 Ezra 2: 42-48, Test Isaac 2- 3a, Test
Jacob 1-3a, 'Ques Bart' and Resurr (Bart) 8b-14a (all Type 1c); and Mart.
Perpetua and Felicitas 11: 1-13: 8, Test Isaac 5-6, Test Jacob 5, 'Zosimus',
'Apoc Moth God', 'Apoc James', 'Myst John', Resurr (Bart) 17b -19b and
'Apoc Sedrach' (all Type 2c).
The only eschatological element which appears in all twenty-five early
Christian apocalypses is the expectation of a personal afterlife.
One might expect the otherworldly journeys to be more individualistic
and thus to be devoted most often to a purely personal eschatology. Such is
not the case; these texts are almost evenly divided into those which include
cosmic eschatology and those which do not. The simpler mode of visions/
auditions is most often used to express expectations regarding the cosmos as
a whole. This type is, however, also used to express purely personal eschato-
logy. In 'Ques Bart', for example, (Type 1c) the mode of revelation consists
of auditions supplemented by visions. The work contains personal eschatology
only.
3. Spatial Elements
In all twenty-five early Christian apocalypses there is some expression

of the importance of a transcendent reality in the form of another,
supernatural world inhabited by supernatural beings. Most often this
interest in another world is expressed in terms of a fascination with angels,
their names and functions. In some works, the main emphasis is on the
role these beings will exercise in the future as agents of the eschatological
crisis and/or resolution (Test Lord 1: 1-14, 'Apoc Jn Theol'). In other
works, the main emphasis lies on the influence these beings exercise on
nature and human life in the present ('Ques Bart', Asc Isa 6- 11, 'Zosimus').
The two points of view are sometimes combined with equal emphasis
CJabob's Ladder', the 'Book of Revelation').
Primarily in works of the otherworldly journey subtype, interest in spatial
transcendence extends to the actual description of otherworldly regions. Most
often the regions described are the places of reward with their delights for
the just in the afterlife and the places of punishment with their torments for
the wicked. In some texts the places of reward are emphasized (Asc Isa 6- 11,
'Apoc James', Resurr [Bart] 17b -19b). In others the places of punishment
are the chief interest (Test Isaac 5-6, Test Jacob 5, 'Apoc Moth God'). In
yet others, both realms are given attention ('Apoc Paul', 'Apoc Esdras', 'Apoc
Mary'). Interest in otherworldly regions can be expressed in apocalypses of
the visions/auditions subtype as well as in the otherworldly journeys. 'Apoc

Peter' (1b) contains extensive description of the places of punishment and a
brief description of Paradise.
VI. Related Types
Studies of early Christian apocalyptic traditions often include a number

of texts which only partially fit the definition of an apocalypse given at the
beginning of this essay. In most cases, eschatological elements are present, but
the revelation lacks the mediated character typical of the apocalypses. Most
of the texts in question have the literary form 'oracle'.
1. Oracles
a) Mark 13
Mark 13 and parallels, the so-called Synoptic apocalypse, is actually a
discourse of Jesus with a dialogue-like introduction. Since the discourse is set
in the ministry of Jesus, prior to his death and resurrection, his role is more
appropriately defined as oracle-giver or prophet than as heavenly mediator.
The eschatological crisis is expected in the form of persecution (vss. 9, 11-13)
and other typical eschatological woes (vss. 6- 23). Judgment, and possibly
destruction, is described in terms of cosmic disturbances and the coming of
the Son of Man (vss. 24- 26). The gathering of the elect might be considered
a form of cosmic eschatology, but in any case it implies individual afterlife
(vs. 27). The spatial aspect of the revelation is expressed in the interest in
angels who are expected to have a role in the eschatological drama.
Although Mark 13 (and parallels) share with early Christian apocalypses
a revelatory content with temporal and spatial dimensions, it should not be
classified as an apocalypse itself because the revelation is not mediated by a
clearly otherworldly being as is the case in the apocalypses.
b) The 'Apocalypse of Elijah'

The so-called 'Apocalypse of Elijah' is actually a series of oracles. The
work is attributed to Elijah only in the title. No human recipient of the oracles
is mentioned. The text itself is completely anonymous. Several hortatory
passages occur among the oracles: 1: 2- 3, 8- 11, 12-21 and 22-26. The
rest of the work is extended narrative prediction in the future tense. Several
oracles are explicitly characterized as oracles of the Lord (1: 1, 8b -10, 16,
20; 2: 1). One of these opens the work and, in effect, designates the entire
book as the word of the Lord.
303 ANRW II 25.6
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The 'Apoc Elijah' (the commonly used title is adopted here for conve-
nience) is extant only in Coptic, but was originally composed in Greek. The
hypothesis that the Coptic is a translation from the Greek is supported by the
existence of a brief Greek fragment of the work. The 'Apoc Elijah' is clearly
Christian in its present form. There is disagreement on whether the work is
a Christian composition which made use of Jewish traditions or a Christian
edition and expanded version of one or more Jewish documents. 50 The passage
which most clearly reflects an historical situation is 2:23-45, especially
32-45. The so-called 'Assyrians' have control over Egypt and are led by a
king from "the city of the sun". The 'Assyrians' and the 'Persians' are portrayed
as enemies. BoussET argued that the 'Assyrians' are the Syrians of the Roman
period, and that the only Syrian king who was notably an enemy of the
Persians (that is, the Sassanians) was Odenath, ruler of Palmyra (d. 267 CE).
Thus, he reasoned, the "city of the sun" refer to Palmyra rather than to
Heliopolis. BoussET argued that this passage is a Jewish composition, because
of its favorable attitude toward the Persians. ScHURER also linked this passage
to the period of Palmyrene domination of Egypt in the second half of the
third century CE. RosENSTIEHL follows BoussET and ScHORER on the date of
the present form of 'Apoc Elijah'. He argues, however, that the document was
merely updated at that time, and that the greater part of the work is an
Egyptian Jewish document with Essene characteristics written in the first
century CE. 51 The arguments adduced by RosEN STIEHL for this first century
source are not conclusive. There is also a Hebrew 'Apocalypse of Elijah' which
is related to the Coptic 'Apoc Elijah', especially in its physical description of
the eschatological adversary. Its editor, BuTTENWIESER, dated it to 260 CE.
WEINEL was of the opinion that it was written in the third or fourth century
CE.52
The eschatological pattern occurs in 'Apoc Elijah' in its full form. At
least part of 2: 2-45 is a review of history in the form of prediction. The
eschatological crisis includes the threat of false teachers (1: 12 -14), typical
eschatological woes (2:23-31, 37-38; 3:62-63), and the activity of the
eschatological adversary (2: 33- 34; 3: 1, 5-55, 64- 80), which involves perse-
cution and death for the saints (3: 40-54, 79- 80). Judgment and destruction
are expected in various forms: the defeat of oppressors (the 'Assyrian' king,
all pagans and all the wicked - 2: 40), the defeat and destruction of the
10 See the discussion in: jEAN M. RosENSTIEHL. L'Apocalypse d'Elie. Textes et Etudes 1.
Paris: Geuthner, 1972, 61-67. In addition to the publications of Coptic manuscripts of
'Apoc Elijah' by STEINDORFF (1899) and ScHMIDT (1925), see the editio princeps of P.
Chester Beatty 2018 by A. PIETERSMA and S. CoMSTOCK with H. ATTRIDGE. The
Apocalypse of Elijah. (SBL Texts and Translations 19. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1981).
See also MICHAEL STONE and joHN STRUGNELL. The Books of Elijah. (SBL Texts and
Translations 18; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1979).
11 RoSENSTIEHL. L'Apocalypse d'Elie, 75-76.
12 M. BUTTENWIESER. Die hebraische Elias-Apokalypse. Leipzig: Pfeiffer, 1897; WEINEL.
Die spatere christliche Apokalyptik, 166. See also ANTHONY SALDARINI. 'Apocalypses'
and 'Apocalyptic' in Rabbinic Literature and Mysticism, Semeia 14 ( 1979) 193.
-·-
eschatological adversary by the returned Enoch and Elijah (3: 91- 96), the
destruction of evil spirits (diaboli - 3: 83) and the destruction of the world
(1: 2, 2: 1, 3: 97). The Lord will judge the angels (3: 90). Salvation involves
personal afterlife for the faithful (l: 3, 8, 10) with the angels (3: 99), resurrection
(3: 48), special honor in heaven for those killed by persecution (3: 48- 50), the
rescue of the just from the wrath of the eschatological adversary and their
translation to a kind of Paradise (3: 56- 61), cosmic transformation (3: 98)
and a thousand-year messianic reign (3: 99). The judgment and punishment
of individual sinners after death is also expected (1: 11; 3:86-88, 90).
Heavenly realities have primarily a future role in 'Apoc Elijah'; for
example, angels will do battle against the eschatological adversary in the end
time (3: 81).
'Apoc Elijah' expresses an eschatological pattern similar in many ways
to that of the 'Book of Revelation'. But since the manner of revelation in
'Apoc. Elijah' differs significantly from that typical of apocalypses, it should
not be categorized as an apocalypse.
c) The 'Apocalypse of Thomas'

The so-called 'Apocalypse of Thomas' is extant in two Latin recensions,
the shorter of which is generally accepted as more original. 5-' There is no
internal evidence for dating. The only guideline is the date of the oldest
manuscript containing the shorter recension (Cod. Vindob. Palatinus 16) which
is fifth century.
'Apoc Thom' is a discourse of the exalted Christ to Thomas, presumably
the apostle. The work is in the first person except for the last sentence: the
words of the Saviour to Thomas about the end of the world are finished. No
response from Thomas is mentioned. No indication of time or place is given.
In fact, there is no narrative framework whatsoever.
The discourse is completely devoted to eschatological matters and relates
the signs of the end of the world which will take place during the seven last
days. The eschatological pattern noted in the 'Book of Revelation' is present
here as well. The eschatological crisis takes the form of typical eschatological
woes on the first day (hunger, pestilence, slavery and war) and of various
cosmic catastrophes on days one through five. The eschatological judgment
takes the form of the destruction of the world by fire which is to occur on
the sixth day. Salvation involves the resurrection of the righteous dead on the
sixth day. Before that time their souls remain in Paradise. After their resurrec-
tion they will be like the angels and will be borne into the presence of the
Father by angels. On the seventh day the righteous still living will be delivered
from the world by angels.
The spatial dimension of the revelation in 'Apoc Thom' relates primarily
to the future. The interest in otherworldly beings involves the active role
53
A. DE SANTOS OTERO. Apocalypse of Thomas, New Testament Apocrypha, ed. HENNECKE
and SCHNEEMELCHER, 2, 798-99.
303'
-- -
which angels will take in the events of the last days, especially in the salvation
of the just.
Even though 'Apoc Thorn' contains revelation of a transcendent reality
with both temporal and spatial elements, it should not be defined as an
apocalypse. Since the work lacks a narrative framework, the mediation of the
revelation is not described as it is in the apocalypses. Thus 'Apoc Thorn' is
better classified as an oracle than as an apocalypse.
d) Other Oracles
Other Christian oracles similar in form and content to Mark 13 and
parallels, 'Apoc Elijah' and 'Apoc Thorn' are the Sibylline Oracles, books
1-2, book 7 and book 8; and 6 Ezra. Each of these works contains revelation
of an eschatological nature. However, this revelation is directly revealed to
the oracle-giver. It is not mediated by an otherworldly, intermediary being as
is the case in the apocalypses.
2. Testaments
a) The 'Testament of Adam' and the 'Penitence of Adam'

A 'Testament of Adam' is extant in Ethiopic and Arabic versions. Two
Syriac fragments, representing two Syriac versions of the same work, have
survived. In the Arabic manuscripts, the 'Testament of Adam' is appended to
the 'Book of the Cave of Treasures'Y A Greek work, related to one of the
Syriac fragments and containing a liturgy of the hours of the day and night,
is extant under the name of Apollonius (of Tyana). A related form of the
Greek work was known to George Cedrenus, a Byzantine chronicler. 55 The
way Cedrenus refers to this work implies that its title was the 'Apocalypse of
Adam' or the 'Penitence of Adam'.
The Ethiopic and Arabic 'Testament of Adam' begins abruptly with a
discourse on prayer at fixed intervals. Human prayer is to be coordinated
with the prayers of various parts of the natural realm and of the angels. The
discourse is addressed to "my son", and in the next portion of the discourse
it becomes clear that the speaker is Adam. This second portion is a description
of the birth and ministry of Jesus and of the Flood in the form of prediction.
The discourse closes with references to the end of all things, the destruction
of the world by fire, the sanctification of the earth, and God's presence on it.
The work closes with the statement that Seth wrote down and sealed "this
54 See E. A. W. BuDGE. The Book of the Cave of Treasures. (London: The Religious Tract
Society, 1927) 242-48. See now also the introduction and translation of the Syriac
version by S. E. ROBINSON. Testament of Adam. In: Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 1,
989-995.
55 The Creek text is given by jAMES. Apocrypha Anecdota, 139-44. He gives an English
translation of the Cedrenus passage in: The Lost Apocrypha of the Old Testament, 2.
---
commandment". This work is most appropriately to be categorized as a

testament. It is related to the apocalypses in its eschatology and in the interest
in the heavenly world expressed in the opening portion of the discourse.
The work known to Cedrenus seems to have involved the manner of
revelation characteristic of apocalypses: certain things were revealed to Adam
through Uriel, the angel who is over repentance. According to Cedrenus, the
work expressed an interest in present heavenly realities similar to that of the
Arabic-Ethiopic 'Test Adam' and contained predictions of the Watchers and
the Flood. It is not clear whether the work also contained eschatological
expectations; Cedrenus does not mention any. It is thus not clear whether the
work known to Cedrenus ought to be categorized as an apocalypse.
The Testaments of Isaac and Jacob were discussed above. Although the
controlling form of these works is the testament, they each contain two small
apocalypses.
3. Individual Related Works
a) Didache 16
Didache 16, the so-called 'little apocalypse' of the 'Did ache', is instruction
about the last things with a hortatory introduction (vss. 1- 2). The passage
is anonymous apart from the title of the work, which attributes its teaching
to the Lord through the twelve apostles. Ch. 16 does not belong to the portion
of the work which AuDET dated to about 70 CE (1: 1-11: 2), 56 but was
probably added, with the rest of the work, not long afterwards - around 90
CE 57 to 100-110 CE. 58
The eschatological crisis is expected in the form of a fiery trial (vs. 5).
In the Greek text of the 'Didache' itself, the eschatological judgment is only
implied in the reference to the coming of the Lord on the clouds. In the version
of this passage which appears in Apost Const 7, it is said that he will judge
the world deceiver, the devil, and requite each according to his deeds. 59
Salvation involves the resurrection of the saints (Did 16: 6). The concept of
resurrection of course includes the expectation of personal afterlife.
Didache 16 should not be defined as an apocalypse. While it does contain
eschatological material, this material is not charcterized as transcendent,
mysterious revelation mediated by an otherworldly being.
b) Ascension of Isaiah 3: 13-4: 18

The question of the unity of the 'Ascension of Isaiah' was discussed
above in the treatment of Asc Isa 6-11 as an early Christian apocalypse of
56 ]. P. AUDET. La Didache: Instructions des apotres. Etudes Bibliques. Paris: Gabalda, 1958.
c 57 So EDGAR J. GooDSPEED. A History of Early Christian Literature, rev. and enlarged by
RoBERT M. GRANT. (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1966) 13.
58 So PHILIPP VrELHAUER. Apocalyptic in Early Christianity: Introduction, 627.
59 See AuDET. La Didache, 73.
the journey type. The conclusion reached there was that 'Asc Isa' is a composite
work, based mainly on a narrative about the martyrdom of Isaiah (to which
at least 2: 1-3: 12 and 5:2-14 belonged) and the clearly Christian account
of Isaiah's heavenly journey (6 -11). Ch. 3: 13-31 and 4: 1-18 are Christian
passages added, probably but not certainly, at the time the two main docu-
ments were combined. It is not obvious that 3: 13-31 and 4: 1-18 were
composed together.
Ch. 3: 13-31 begins as a third person summary of the revelation announ-
ced by Isaiah concerning the descent, death and resurrection of Christ, the
establishment of the church, and the discord within the church during the last
days. In vs. 31 there is a sudden shift to the first person and a reference to
the preceding summary as "these may visions". Ch. 4: 1- 18 is an account of
the end of the world characterized by the appearance of the eschatological
adversary - Beliar in the form of Nero. This passage is a simple oracle
spoken by Isaiah in the first person to Hezekiah and Jasub (4: 1). Vs. 19 refers
indirectly to what precedes as a vision. Since 4: 1-18 makes use of the Nero
legend, it most probably dates to the period from 68 to 120 CE.
The summary of the descent and ministry of Christ in 3: 13- 31 is an ex
eventu prophecy, but not a complete or systematic review of history. The latter
part of the passage describes various disorders in the church as a characteristic of
the 'last days', thus probably as part of the eschatological crisis.
In 4: 1-18 we find the eschatological crisis in the form of persecution of
the faithful by the eschatological adversary (vss. 2-13). The defeat and
punishment of Beliar and his hosts by Christ and his angels is expected (vs.
14), as well as the destruction of the world and the evil angels (vs. 18). The
defeat of Beliar (and "his kings" - vs. 16) implies the defeat of Rome, since
Beliar is identified here with Nero. Thus the judgment has political as well as
spiritual meaning. Salvation involves the resurrection of the faithful dead and
the translation to heaven of those still alive (vss. 15 -17). The spatial dimen-
sion of the revelation is expressed in the expectation that angels will take part
in the eschatological drama (vs. 14).
Ch. 4: 1- 18 is not an apocalypse because it lacks the mediated manner
of revelation which is characteristic of the genre. Apart from the apparently
secondary reference to the passage as a vision in 4: 19, it is an oracle which
expresses eschatological expectations.
c) The 'Apocalypse of John the Theologian attributed to John Chryso-

stom'
The 'Apocalypse of John the Theologian attributed to John Chrysostom'
or the second Greek apocryphal 'Apocalypse of St. John' is actually a simple
dialogue between 'John' and 'the Lord'. The work contains no definite
evidence of date. NAu, who published the text, suggested a date from the
sixth to the eighth century, but gave no clear reasons for his suggestion. 60
60 F. NAu. Une deuxieme Apocalypse apocryphe grecque de Saint Jean, RB 23 (1914)
209-21.
----
FARLY CHRISTIAN APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE 4697
Like most Christian revelation dialogues, it is not a true dialogue but a

series of questions and more extensive answers. The stylized form of the
opening statements of the answers is similar to that of the first Greek
apocryphal 'Apocalypse of St. John'. This second work is entirely in the third
person, while the other is in the first person. The second so-called 'Apocalypse
of St. John' was not included among the apocalypses above because there is
no indication that heavenly, transcendent revelation is involved. No indication
of time or place is given; nor any hint that Christ is in the role of heavenly
mediator. He is not described as exalted in any way, nor is there any indication
that the setting is after his resurrection.
The only element of the eschatological pattern present in this work
(hereafter 'Ques Jn Theol') is the expectation of personal afterlife. Sinners
will be punished after death like Judas in a river of fire (3). The righteous
will be honored by the Lord before angels and men (6, 42) and will be in
heaven after death (14). Interest in the heavenly world is expressed in the
statement that fasting makes possible ascent to the heavenly realm and allows
life with the angels (12). This seems to refer to present mystical experience as
much as to life after death.
'Ques Jn Theor should not be categorized as an apocalypse because it
lacks the apocalyptic characteristic of mediated, heavenly revelation. It does,
however, contain eschatological elements and it manifests the interest in the
heavenly world typical of apocalypses.
VII. Conclusion
This essay is intended to be an initial contribution to the study of early

Christian apocalyptic literature from the point of view of literary genre. A
number of conclusions have been reached which should modify certain current
assumptions. At a number of points the need for further work has been
highlighted.
1. Certain texts in the corpus of early Christian literature form a coherent

and distinct group. This group of texts constitutes a recognizable literary type
which may reasonably be designated 'apocalypse'.
2. Interest in the past, particularly in the form of reviews of history, is
a very minor element in this group of texts by contrast with the corpus of
Jewish apocalypses.
3. Again in constrast to the Jewish apocalypses, pseudonymity is not a
constant feature of early Christian apocalypses.
4. Explicit paraenesis is a minor element in early Christian apocalypses.
The question of the implicitly hortatory function of much of the content of
these texts needs to be further examined.
-- -
., P.
5. A number of texts very frequently referred to as •apocalyptic' do not

belong to the same genre as the apocalypses (Mark 13 and parallels, ·Apoc
Elijah', ·Apoc Thomas' and Didache 16).
6. One text usually classified as a gospel belongs to the genre ·apocalypse'
( Ques Bart').
7. The evidence indicates that in the first two centuries apocalypses with
cosmic eschatology were more common than those with purely personal
eschatology. It appears that the apocalypses with purely personal eschatology
begin to dominate in the third century and later. This impression needs to be
checked when further work has been done to date the apocalypses of subtypes
lc and 2c.
8. Much further work is needed on individual texts.
a) Little recent work has been done on establishing a critical text for
most of these works.
b) One text has not been translated into a modern western language
(Apoc Mary').
c) Further work could be done to date many of the early Christian
apocalypses more accurately. Such studies would also involve the provenance
of these works.
d) The history-of-religions studies which have been done on ·Revelation'
and ·Apoc Peter' need to be continued and extended to the other texts.
VIII. Bibliography
General:
BATIFFOL, P., 'Apocalypses apocryphes'. In: Dictionnaire de Ia Bible. Vol. 1, coli. 756-767.
Ed. F. VIGOUROUX. Paris: Letouzey, 1926.
BAUMGARTEN, jdRG, Paulus und die Apokalyptik: Die Auslegung apokalyptischer Oberliefe-
rungen in den echten Paulusbriefen. Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alren und
Neuen Testament 44. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1975.
BoussET, WILHELM, The Antichrist Legend. Trans. A. H. KEANE. Ger. ed. 1895. London:
Hutchinson, 1896.
CHARLESWORTH, jAMES H., ed., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. 2 Vols. Garden City:
Doubleday, 1983 and 1985.
Io., The Pseudepigrapha and Modern Research. Septuagint and Cognate Studies 7. Missoula:
Scholars Press, 1976.
Io., A History of Pseudepigrapha Research: The Re-emerging Importance of the Pseudepigra-
pha. In: ANRW II 19.1, ed. W. HAASE, Berlin- New York: de Gruyter, 1979, 54-88.
CoLLINS, ADELA YARBRO, Early Christian Apocalypticism: Genre and Social Setting. Semeia
36 (1986).
COLLINS, jOHN J., Apocalypse: The Morphology of a Genre. Semeia 14 (1979).
lo., The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to the Jewish Matrix of Christianity.
New York: Crossroad, 1984.
lo., Daniel. With an Introduction to Apocalyptic Literature. The Forms of the Old Testament
Literature 20. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984 ..
'
L
DENIS, ALBERT M., Introduction aux pseudcpigraphes grecs d'Ancien Testament. Studta in
Vctcm Testamenti Pseudepigrapha 1. Leiden: Brill, 1970.
DoTY, WILLIAM G., The Concept of Genre in Literary Analysis. Society of Biblical Literature,
Proceedings. Ed. LANE McGAUGHY. Missoula, Montana: SBL, 1972.
ERNST, JosEF, Die eschatologischen Gegenspieler in den Schriften des Neuen Testaments.
Regensburg: Pustet, 1967.
rOWLER, ALASTAIR, The Life and Death of Literary Forms. New Literary History 2 (1971)
199-216.
FuNK, RoBERT W., Apocalypticism: Journal for Theology and the Church 6. New York:
Herder and Herder, 1969.
Goonsru:o, EDGAR .J., A History of Early Christian Literature. Rev. and enlarged by
RoBERT M. GRANT. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1966.
GRUENWALD, lTHAMAR, Apocalyptic and Merkavah Mysticism. Leiden: Brill, 1980.
Jo., Jewish Apocalyptic Literature. In: ANRW II 19.1, ed. W. HAASE, Berlin- Nev,; York:
de Gruyter, 1979, 89-118.
HANSON, PAUL D., 'Apocalypse, Genre'. 'Apocalypticism'. In: The Interpreter's Dictionary
of the Bible, Supplementary Volume, 27- 28; 28-34. Nashville: Abingdon, 1976.
HELLHOLM, DAVID, Apocalypticism in the Mediterranean World and the Ancient Near East:
Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Apocalypticism, Uppsala, August
12-17, 1979. Tubingen: Mohr & Siebeck, 1983.
HI:NNECKE, EDGAR, New Testament Apocrypha. 2 Vols. Ed. W. ScHNEEMELCHER. Trans.
and ed. R. MeL. WILSON. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1963 and 1965. German edition:
HENNECKE, EDGAR. Neutestamentliche Apokryphen in deutscher Obersetzung. 2 Vols.
Ed. W. ScHNEEMELCHER, 3'd ed. Tubingen: Mohr, 1959 and 1964.
HIMMELFARB, MARTHA, Tours of Hell: An Apocalyptic Form in Jewish and Christian
Literature. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983.
jAMES, M. R., Apocrypha Anecdota. Texts and Studies 2.3. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity, 1893.
Io., The Lost Apocrypha of the Old Testament. London: SPCK, 1920.
lD., The Apocryphal New Testament. Oxford: Clarendon, 1924.
Ki\sEMANN, ERNST, Die Anfange christlicher Theologie. Zeitschrift fur Theologie und Kirche
57 (1960) 162-85 ( = ID., Exegetische Versuche und Besinnungen, vol. 2. Gottingen:
Vandenhoeck u. Ruprecht, 1964, 82 -104).
ID., Zum Thema der urchristlichen Apokalyptik. Zeitschrift fur Theologie und Kirche 59
(1962) 257-84 ( = lD., ib., 105 -131).
KocH, KLAUS, Ratios vor der Apokalyptik. Gutersloh: Mohn, 1970. English translation,
The Rediscovery of Apocalyptic. Trans. MARGARET KoHL. Studies in Biblical Theology
2.22. Naperville, Illinois: Allenson, 1972.
LINDBLOM, joHANNES, Gesichte und Offenbarungen: Vorstellungen von gottlichen Weisungen
und ubernati.irlichen Erscheinungen im altesten Christentum. Skrifter utgivna av Kung!.
Humanistiska Vetenskapssamfundet i Lund 65. Lund: Gleerup, 1968.
McNAMARA, MARTIN, The Apocrypha in the Irish Church. Dublin: Dublin Institute for
Advanced Studies, 1975.
METZGER, BRUCE M., Literary Forgeries and Canonical Pseudepigrapha. Journal of Biblical
Literature 91 (1972) 3-24.
RIESSLER, PAUL, Altjudisches Schrifttum auBerhalb der Bibel. 1928. Reprint. Darmstadt:
Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1966.
RoWLAND, CHRISTOPHER, The Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and
Christianity. New York: Crossroad, 1982.
SANDERS, jACK T., Ethics in the New Testament. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1975.
SPARKS, H. F. D., ed., The Apocryphal Old Testament. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984.
STONE, MICHAEL, Lists of Revealed Things in the Apocalyptic Literature. In Magnalia Dei:
The Mighty Acts of God. Ed. FRANK M. CRoss, ]R. et a!. Garden City, N.Y.:
Doubleday, 1976.
TISCHENDORF, C. VON, Apocalypses apocryphae: Mosis, Esdrae, Pauli, Johannis, item Mariae
dormitio. Leipzig: Mendelssohn, 1866. Reprint. 1966.
VIELHAUER, P., 1. Introduction. In: Apocalyptic in Early Christianity. HENNECKE- SCHNEE-
MELCHER, 2. 608- 42.
WEINEL, HEINRICH, Die spatere christliche Apokalyptik. In: Eucharisterion. Fs. Hermann
Gunkel. Ed. HANS ScHMIDT. Vol. 2. Studien zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und
Neuen Testaments N.F. 19.2. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck u. Ruprecht, 1923.
Apocalypses:
'Jacob's Ladder'
1. Translation
BoNWTESCH, G. N., Die Apokryphe 'Leiter Jakobs'. In: Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissen-
schaften, Gottingen. Nachrichten, Philologisch-historische Klasse. Gottingen: Vanden-
hoeck u. Ruprecht, 1900.
jAMES, M. R., The Lost Apocrypha of the OT. Pp. 96- 103.
LuNT, H. G., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Vol. 2. Pp. 407-411.
2. Introduction
CHARLESWORTH, ]. H., The Pseudepigrapha and Modern Research. Pp. 130-31.
DENIS, A.M., Introduction. Pp. 34-45.
LuNT, H. G., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Vol. 2. Pp. 401-406.
'The Book of Revelation'

BacHER, Orro, Die Johannesapokalypse. Ertrage der Forschung 41. Darmstadt: Wissen-
schaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1975 (Contains a 500-entry bibliography).
Io., Die Johannes-Apokalypse in der neueren Forschung, above in this same volume (ANRW
II 25 .5) 3850-3893.
BoussET, WILHELM, Die Offenbarung Johannis. Meyer 16, 5th ed. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck
u. Ruprecht, 1896.
CHARLES, R. H., A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Revelation of St. John.
International Critical Commentary. 2 vols. New York: Scribner's, 1920.
CoLLINS, ADELA YARBRO, The Combat Myth in the Book of Revelation. Harvard Disserta-
tions in Religion 9. Missoula: Scholars Press, 1976.
EAo., The History of Religions Approach to Apocalypticism and the 'Angel of the Waters'
(Rev 16:4- 7). Catholic Biblical Quarterly 39 (1977) 367-81.
EAo., Crisis and Catharsis: The Power of the Apocalypse. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1984.
EAo., The Book of Revelation: Justice and Judgment. Piladelphia: Fortress, 1985.
CoLLINS, joHN ]., Pseudonymity. Historical Reviews and the Genre of the Apocalypse of
John. Catholic Biblical Quarterly 39 (1977) 329-43.
DIETERICH, ALBRECHT, Abraxas: Studien zur Religionsgeschichte des spatern Altertums.
Leipzig: Teubner, 1891.
FEu ILLET, ANDRE, L'Apocalypse: Etat de Ia question. Studia Neotestamentica Subsidia 3.
Paris: Desclee, 1963.
FORD, .J. MASSYNGBERDE, Revelation. The Anchor Bible 38. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday,
1975.
jONES, BRUCE W., More about the Apocalypse as Apocalyptic. Journal of Biblical Literature
87 ( 1968) 325-27.
KRAFT, HEINRICH, Die Offenbarung des Johannes. Handbuch zum Neuen Testament 16 ~1.
TLibingen: Mohr, 1974.
ScHussu:R FIORENZA, ELISABETH, Apocalyptic and Gnosis in the Book of Revelation and
Paul. Journal of Biblical Literature 92 ( 1973) 565-81.
-
'Apocalypse of Peter'
1. Greek Text
KLOSTERMANN, ERICH, Apocrypha I, Reste des Petrus-Evangeliurns, der Petrusapokalypse
und des Kerygma Petri . . . Kleine Texte fur Vorlesungen und Ubungen 3. Bonn:
Marcus, 1903. Seconded. 1908.
2. Ethiopic Text
GRERAUT, SYLVAIN, Litterature ethiopienne pseudo-Clementine. Revue de !'Orient Chretien
15 (1910) 198-208,307-16,425-33.
3. Translation
DuENSING, H. and DAVID HILL, in: HFNNFCKE- ScHNEEMELCHER, 2. 668-83.
4. Studies
BAUC:KHAM, R. ]., The Apocalypse of Peter: An Account of Research, below in this same
volume (ANRW II 25.6) 4712-4750.
DIETERICH, ALBRECHT, Nekyia: Beitriige zur Erklarung der neuentdeckten Petrusapokalypse.
Leipzig, 1913. Reprint. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1969.
MAURER, CH., in: HENNECKE- SCHNEEMELCHER, 2. 663-68.
SPITTA, F., Die Petrusapokalypse und der zweite Petrusbrief. Zeitschrift fur die neutestarnent-
liche Wissenschaft 12 (1911) 237-42.
'Shepherd of Hermas'
1. Greek Text
WHITTAKER, MoLLY, Der Hirt des Hermas. Die Apostolischen Vater. Vol. 1. GCS 48. Berlin:
Akademie, 1956.
2. Text and Translation
LAKE, KIRSOPP, The Shepherd of Herrnas. In: The Apostolic Fathers. Vol. 2. Loeb Classical
Library. London: Heinemann, 1930.
3. Translation and Commentary
DmFuus, MARTIN, Der Hirt des Hermas. HNT suppl. vol. Tubingen: Mohr, 1923.
SNYDER, GRAYDON, The Shepherd of Hermas. The Apostolic Fathers. Vol. 6. ed. ROBERT
M. GRANT. Camden: Nelson, 1968.
4. Studies
BAUCKHAM, R. ]., The Great Tribulation in the Shepherd of Hermas. Journal of Theological
Studies NS/25 (1974) 27-40.
GIET, STANISLAS, Hermas et les pasteurs. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1963.
HELLHOLM, DAVID, Das Visionenbuch des Hermas als Apokalypse. Lund: Gleerup, 1980.
O'HAGAN, A. P., The Great Tribulation to Come in the Pastor of Hermas. Studia Patristica
4 (1961) 305-11.
REILING, J., Hermas and Christian Prophecy. Novum Testamentum. Suppl. Vol. 37. Leiden:
Brill, 1973.
'Book of Elchasai'
1. Greek Text
HILGENFELD, ADOLF, Hermae Pastor. Novum Testamentum extra canonern receptum 3.2.
2nd ed. Pp. 227-40. Leipzig: Weigel, 1881.
--~ ---
2. Translation and Introduction

IRMSCHER, J. and R. MeL. WILSON, IN: HENNECKE- ScHNEEMELCHER, 2. 745-50.
3. Studies
STRECKER, G., 'Elkesai'. RAC 4. 1171-86. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1959.
'Apocalypse of St. John the Theologian'

1. Greek Text
TISCHENDORF, C., Apocalypses apocryphae. Pp. 70-94.
2. Studies
BoussET, W., The Antichrist Legend. Pp. 42-43.
TISCHENDORF, C., Apocalypses apocryphae. Pp. XVIII- XIX.
WALKER, ALEXANDER, Revelation of John. In: The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by A.
RoBERTS and]. DoNALDSON. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1885. Vol. 8. Pp. 582-86.
WEINEL, H., Die spatere christliche Apokalyptik. Pp. 149-51.
'Testament of the Lord'

1. Syriac Text
LAGARDE, P. A. DE, Reliquiae juris ecclesiastici antiquissimae syriace. London: William and
Norgate, 1865.
RAHMANI, IGNATIUS, Testamentum Domini nostri Jesu Christi. Moguntiae: Kirchheim, 1899
(with Latin translation).
2. Latin Fragment
jAMES, M. R., Apocrypha Anecdota. Pp. 151-54.
3. Ethiopic Text
GuERRIER, Louis, Le Testament en Galilee de notre seigneur Jesus-Christ. Patrologia
orientalis 9.3. Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1913.
4. Translation
CooPER, JAMES and ARTHUR MACLEAN, The Testament of Our Lord. Edinburgh: Clark,
1902 (from the Syriac with introduction and notes).
WAJNBERG. I., Apokalyptische Rede Jesu an seine Junger in Galilaa. Ih: Gesprache Jesu
mit seinen Ji.ingern nach der Auferstehung: Ein katholisch-apostolisches Sendschreiben
des 2. Jahrhunderts. Ed. CARL ScHMIDT. Texte und Untersuchungen 43. Leipzig:
Hinrichs, 1919 (translation is from the Ethiopic).
5. Studies
AcHELIS, H., Testamentum domini nostri Jesu Christi, eine Kirchenordnung des 5. Jahrhun-
derts. In: Realencyclopadie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche 19. Leipzig:
Hinrichs, 1907. Pp. 557-59. 'Nachtrag'. Ibid. 24 (1913) p. 560.
FASCHER, ERICH, Testamentum domini nostri Jesu Christi. In: PAUL Ys Realencyclopadie der
classischen Altertumswissenschaft VA 1, coil. 1016-20. Ed. GEORG WISSOWA. Stutt-
gart: Metzler, 1934.

IRMSCHER, ]. and R. MeL. WILSON, IN: HENNECKE- ScHNEEMELCHER, 2. 745-50.
3. Studies
STRECKER, G., 'Elkesai'. RAC 4. 1171-86. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1959.
'Apocalypse of St. ] ohn the Theologian'
1. Greek Text
2. Studies
BoussET, W., The Antichrist Legend. Pp. 42-43.
TISCHENDORF, C., Apocalypses apocryphae. Pp. XVIII- XIX.
WALKER, ALEXANDER, Revelation of John. In: The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by A.
ROBERTS and ]. DoNALDSON. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1885. Vol. 8. Pp. 582-86.
WEINEL, H., Die spatere christliche Apokalyptik. Pp. 149-51.
'Testament of the Lord'

1. Syriac Text
LAGARDE, P. A. DE, Reliquiae juris ecclesiastici antiquissimae syriace. London: William and
Norgate, 1865.
RAHMANI, IGNATIUS, Testamentum Domini nostri Jesu Christi. Moguntiae: Kirchheim, 1899
(with Latin translation).
2. Latin Fragment
3. Ethiopic Text
GuERRIER, LouiS, Le Testament en Galilee de notre seigneur Jesus-Christ. Patrologia
orientalis 9.3. Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1913.
4. Translation
CooPER, jAMES and ARTHUR MAcLEAN, The Testament of Our Lord. Edinburgh: Clark,
1902 (from the Syriac with introduction and notes).
WAJNBERG. I., Apokalyptische Rede Jesu an seine Junger in Galilaa. Ih: Gesprache Jesu
mit seinen Jungern nach der Auferstehung: Ein katholisch-apostolisches Sendschreiben
des 2. Jahrhunderts. Ed. CARL SCHMIDT. Texte und Untersuchungen 43. Leipzig:
Hinrichs, 1919 (translation is from the Ethiopic).
5. Studies
AcHELIS, H., Testamentum domini nostri Jesu Christi, eine Kirchenordnung des 5. Jahrhun-
derts. In: Realencyclopadie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche 19. Leipzig:
Hinrichs, 1907. Pp. 557-59. 'Nachtrag'. Ibid. 24 (1913) p. 560.
FASCHER, ERICH, Testamentum domini nostri Jesu Christi. In: PAULYS Realencyclopadie der
classischen Altertumswissenschaft VA 1, coli. 1016-20. Ed. GEORG WISSOWA. Stutt-
gart: Metzler, 1934.
-··
EARLY CHRISTIAN APOCALYPTIC LITFRATlJRF 4703
S Ezra
1. Latin Text
BENSLY, R. L., The Fourth Rook of Ezra. Texts and Studies 3.2. Cambridge: Cambridge
University, 1895. Reprint. 1967.

DuENSING, H. and DAVID H. ILL, in: HENNECKE- SCHNEEMELCHFR, 2. 689-95.
METZGER, B. M., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Ed. ]. H. CHARLESWORTH. Vol. 1.
Pp. 516-59. •

MYERS, jACOB, I and II Esdras. Anchor Bible. Garden City: Doubleday, 1974.
4. Studies
DANIF.Lou, J., LeV" Esdras et le judeo-christianisme latin au 2" siecle. In: Ex orbe religionum:
Studia Geo Widengren. Vol. 1. Studies in the History of Religions (Supplements to
Numen) 21. Leiden: Rrill 1972. Pp. 162-71.
KRAFT, R. A., "Ezra" Materials in Judaism and Christianity. ANRW II 19.1, ed. W. HAASE,
Berlin-New York: de Gruyter, 1979. Pp. 119-36.
'Testament of Isaac'
1. Coptic Text
GUIDI, 1., II testo copto del Testamento di Abramo: II Testamento di Isacco e il Testamento
di Giaccobo. Rendiconti della reale accademia dei Lincei, classe di scienze morali,
storiche e filologiche 5 .9. Rome: Tipografia della Accademia, 1900 (Bohairic).
KuHN, K. H., The Sahidic Version of the Testament of Isaac. JTS NS/8 (1957) 225-39.
2. Translation
GASELEE, S., Appendix. In: The Testament of Abraham. Ed. G. H. Box. London: SPCK,
1927.
KuHN, K. H., An English Translation of the Sahidic Version of the Testament of Isaac. JTS
NS/18 (1967) 325-36.
Io., The Apocryphal Old Testament. Ed. H. F. D. SPARKS. Pp. 423-39. (With introduction.)
RIESSLER, P., Altjiidisches Schrifttum. Pp. 1135-48.
DELCOR, M., Le Testament d'Abraham. Studia in Veteris Testamenti Pseudepigrapha 2.
Leiden: Brill, 1973. From Bohairic by M. CHAINE (pp. 196- 205), Ethiopic by CHAINE
and A. CAQUOT (pp. 224-33), and Arabic by CHAINE and P. MAR<;AIS (pp. 252-61).
STINESPRING, W. F., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Ed. ]. H. CHARLESWORTH. Vol. 1.
Pp. 903- 11. (With introduction.)
3. Studies
DELCOR, M., Le Testament d'Abraham. Pp. 78- 83.
'Testament of Jacob'
1. Coptic Text
GuiDI, 1., (See above on 'Test Isaac'.)
-
2. Translation
GASELEE, S. (See above on 'Test Isaac'.)
DELCOR, M. (See above on 'Test Isaac'.) From Bohairic, pp. 205- 13; Ethiopic, pp. 233-41;
Arabic, pp. 261-67.
STINESPRING, W. F. (See above on 'Test Isaac'.) Pp. 913-18. (With introduction.)
KuHN, K. H. (See above on 'Test Isaac'.) Pp. 441-52. (With introduction.)
3. Introduction
CHARLESWORTH,]. H., The Pseudpigrapha and Modern Research. Pp. 131-33.
'Questions of Bartholomew'
1. Greek Text
VASSILIEV ( = VASIL'EV) A., Quaestiones sancti Bartholomaei aposroli. Sbornik pamiatnikov
vizantilskol literatury. Anecdota Graeco-Byzantina 1. Moscow: Sumptibus et typis
Universitatis caesareae, 1893.
WILMART, A. and E. TrssERANT, Fragments grecs et latins de l'Evangile de Barthelemy. RB
NS/10 = 22 (1913) 161-90, 321-68 (a different Greek recension from that published
by VASSILIEV).
2. Latin Text
MoRICCA, U., Un nuovo testo dell' 'Evangelo di Bartolomeo'. RB 30 (1921) 481-516, 31
(1922) 20-30 (Latin text with apparatus criticus; made use of all recensions).
SCHEID WEILER, f. and W. SCHNEEMELCHER, in: HENNECKE- SCHNEEMELCHER, 1, 484-503.
'Book of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ by Bartholomew the Apostle'

1. Coptic Text
BuDGE, E. A. W., Coptic Apocrypha in the Dialect of Upper Egypt. London: Printed by
order of the Trustees of the British Museum, 1913. Pp. 1 ~ 48 and plates I~ XLVIII (a
third recension).
LAcAu, P., Fragments d'apocryphes coptes. Memoires publics par les membres de l'Institut
franc;:ais d'archeologie orientale du Caire 9 (1904) 39 ~ 77 (two recensions).
2. Translation
BuDGE, E. A. W. (See above.) From recension published by BuDGE, pp. 179 ~ 215; from two
recensions published by LACAU, pp. 216-30.
3. Introduction
SCHNEEMELCHER, W., in: HENNECKE- SCHNEEMELCHER, 1. 503-08.
'Ascension of Isaiah'
1. Ethiopic, Latin Texts, Greek Fragments and Related Greek Legend

CHARLES, R. H., The Ascension of Isaiah. London: Black, 1900 (also contains a Latin
translation of the Old Slavonic version and an English translation).
2. Coptic Fragments
LACAU, P., Fragments de l'Ascencion d'Isaie en copte. Museon 59 ( 1946) 453-67.
LEFORT, L. TH., Coptica Lovaniensia (suite). Museon 51 (1938) 24-30 (with a French
translation).
In., Fragments d'Apocryphes en copte-akhmimique. Muscon S2 (1939) 7-10 (with a French

translation).
3. Translation or Translation and Introduction

BARTO~,]. M. T., The Apocryphal Old Testament. Ed. H. F. D. SPARKS. Pp. 775-812.
Box, G. H., The Apocalypse of Abraham and the Ascension of Isaiah. Translations of Early
Documents. London: SPCK, 1919.
CHARLES, R. H. (Sec above.)
FLEMMING, J ., H. DuENSING and D. HILL, in: HFNNECKE- ScHNEEMELCHER, 2. 642-63.
KNIBB, M. A., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Ed. ]. H. CHARLESWORTH. Vol. 2. Pp.
143-76.
TISSERANT, EuGENE, L'Ascension d'Isaie. Paris: Letouzey, 1909.
HAMMERSHAIMB, ERLING, Das Martyrium Jesajas. In: .Jiidische Schriften aus hellenistisch-
romischer Zeit 2.1. Giitersloh: Mohn, 1973 (chs. 1 -5 only).
4. Studies
CAQUOT, A., Bref commentaire du 'Martyre d'Isa.Je·. Semitica 23 (1973) 65-93.
FLUSSER, DAVID, The Apocryphal Book of Ascensio lsaiae and the Dead Sea Sect. Israel
Exploration Journal 3 (1953) 30-47.
HELM BOLD, A. K., Gnostic Elements in the Ascension of Isaiah. NTS 18 (1972) 222-26.
NORELL!, E., L''Ascensio Isaiae' come apocrifo cristiano (Supplement to this same volume
[ANRW II 25.6], to be published at the end of volume II 26).
PHILONENKO, M., Le Martyre d'Esa·ie et l'histoire de Ia scctc de Qoumran. In: Pseudepigra-
phes de !'Ancien Testament et manuscrits de Ia mer Morte. Vol. 1. Ed. M. PHILONENKO.
Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1967.
'Apocalypse of Paul'
1. Latin Text
jAMES, M. R., Apocrypha Anecdota. Pp. 11-42. Sn.VERSTEIN, TH., Visio sancti Pauli.
Studies and Documents 4. London: Christophers, 1935.
In., The Vision of St. Paul. New Links and Patterns in the Western Tradition. Archives
d'histoire doctrinale et litteraire du Moyen Age 34 (1959) 199-248.
2. Greek Text
3. Coptic Text
BuDGE, E. A. W., Miscellaneous Coptic Texts in the Dialect of Upper Egypt. London:
Printed by order of the Trustees of the British Museum, 1915.
4. Syriac Text
RICCIOTTI, G., L'apocalisse di Paolo siriaca. Vol. 1, Introduzione, testo e commento. Vol.
2, La cosmologia della Bibbia e Ia sua trasmissione fino a Dante. Brescia: Morcelliana,
1932.
In., Apocalypsis Pauli syriace. Orientalia 2 (1933) 1-24, 120-49.

DuENSING, H. and D. HILL, in: HENNECKE-SCHNEEMELCHER, 2. 755-98.
6. Studies
CASEY, R. P., The Apocalypse of Paul. JTS 34 (1933) 1-32.
--
'Apocalypse of Esdras'
1. Greek Text
WAHL, 0., Apocalypsis Esdrae, Apocalypsis Sedrach, Visio Beati Esdrae. Pseudepigrapha
Veteris Testamenti Graece 4. Leiden: Brill, 1977.
2. Latin Text
MERCATI, G., Visio beati Esdrae. In: Note di letteratura biblica e cristiana antica. Studi e
Testi 5. Rome: Vatican, 1901.
3. Ethiopic Text
HALEVY, J., Te' ezaza sanbat (Commandements du Sabbat), accompagne de six autres ecrits.
Bibliotheque de ]'Ecole des hautes etudes ... Sciences historiques et philologiques 137.
Paris: Bouillon, 1902.
4. Translation
MOLLER, U. B., Die griechische Esra-Apokalypse. In: Jiidische Schriften aus hellenistisch-
romischer Zeit 5.2. Giitersloh: Mohn, 1976.
HALEVY, J. (See above.) Pp.178-95.
STONE, MICHAEL, The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Ed. J. H. CHARLESWORTH. Vol. 1.
Pp. 561-79. (With introduction and notes.)
5. Studies
BATIFFOL, P., Apocalypses apocryphes. P. 765.
DENIS, A. M., Introduction. Pp. 91-96.
jAMES, M. R., Apocrypha Anecdota. Pp. 112-12 (brief comment on the date).
'Apocalypse of the Virgin Mary'

1. Ethiopic Text
CHAINE, MARIUS, Apocalypsis seu Visio Mariae Virginis. In: Apocrypha de B. Maria Virgine.
Part 1, Textus. Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium. Scriptures Acthiopici
1.7. Rome: Luigi, 1909.
2. Translation
CHAiNE, M., Apocalypsis seu Visio Mariae Virginis. In: Apocrypha de B. Maria Virgine.
Part 2, Versio (Latin).
jAMES, M. R., The Apocryphal New Testament. (English summary) pp. 563-64.
3. Studies
ScHNEEMELCHER, W., in: HENNECKE- ScHNEEMELCHER, 2. 754.
The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas

I. Text, Translation and Introduction
MusuRILLO, HERBERT, The Acts of the Christian Martyrs. Oxford Early Christian Texts.
Oxford: Clarendon, 1972.
"Story of Zosimus'
I. Greek Text with apparatus criticus

jAMES, M. R,, Apocrypha Anecdota. Pp. 96- 108.
-- L
2. Greek Text and Translation
CHARLESWORTH,]. H., The History of the Rechabites. Vol. I. The Greek Recension. SBL
Texts and Translations 17. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1982 .
.1. Syriac Text

I': Au, F., La h~gende inedite 'Des fils de Jonadab, fils de Rechab, et les iles Fortunees' -
a
texte syriaque (Attribue Jacques d'Edesse) et traduction fran<;:aise. Revue semitique
d'epigraphie et d'histoire ancienne 7 (1899) 54-75.
4. Ethiopic Text
Bum;r, E. A. W., The History of the Blessed Men Who Lived in the Days of .Jeremiah the
Prophet. In: The Life and Exploits of Alexander the Great. Vol. 1. London: Clay,
1896.
4. Translation
HuocE, E. A. W., The Life and Exploits of Alexander the Great. Vol. 2. 555- 84.
CHARLESWORTH, J. H., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Vol. 2. Pp. 44.1 -61.
CRAIG IF, W. A., The Narrative of Zosimus concerning the Life of the Hlessed. In: The Ante-
Nicene Fathers. Vol. 10. Ed. ALLAN MENZIES. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1951.
NAu, F. (See above.) Pp.136-46.
5. Studies
NAu, F., (See above for title and journal.) 6 (1898) 263-66.
PICARD, ]. C., L'Histoire des Bienheureux du temps de Jeremie et Ia Narration de Zosime:
arriere-plan historique et mythique. In: Pseudepigraphes de !'Ancien Testament (see
above, PHILONENKO entry under 'Asc !sa').
'Apocalypse of the Holy Mother of God concerning the Punishments'

1. Greek Text
DAWKINS, R. M., Kretike Apokalypsis tes Panagias. Kretika Chronika 2 (1948) 487-500 (a
Cretan version).
2. Bibliographical Information on Slavonic Versions

KozAK, E., Bibliographische Obersicht der biblisch-apocryphen Literatur bei den Slaven.
Jahrbiicher fiir protestantische Theologie 18 (1892) 127-58.
3. Translation
RuTHERFORD, A., The Apocalypse of the Virgin. In: The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Vol. 10 (see
above, CRAIGIE entry under 'Story of Zosimus').
4. Studies
ScHNEEMELCHER, W., in: HENNECKE- SCHNEEMELCHER, 2. 753-54.
TISCHENDORF, C., Apocalypses apocryphae. Pp. XXVII- XXX.
WEINEL, H., Die spiitere christliche Apokalyptik. Pp. 156-57.
304 ANRW II 25.6
/~.
-
'Apocalypse of James'
.t.",
1. Introduction, Coptic Text and English Translation
BuDGE, E. A. W., Coptic Apocrypha (see above under 'Book of the Resurrection'). Pp.
1-lvi, lxx -lxxii; 128-45 (especially 136- 43; 335-41- especially 343- 50).
2. Studies
jAMES, M. R., The Apocryphal New Testament. Pp. 37, 504.
'Mysteries of St. John the Apostle and Holy Virgin'

1. Introduction, Coptic Text and English Translation
BuDGE, E. A. W., Coptic Apocrypha (see above under 'Book of the Resurrection'). Pp.
xxxii- xli, lxvii -lxx; 59- 64; 241 -57.
'Apocalypse of Sedrach'
1. Greek Text and Introduction
WAHL, 0. (See above under Apocalypse of Esdras.)
2. Translation and/or Introduction
AGOURIDES, S., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Ed. J. H. CHARLESWORTH. Vol. 1. Pp.
605-613.
CHARLESWORTH,]. H., The Pseudepigrapha and Modern Research. Pp. 178-82.
RuTHERFORD, A. (See above on 'Apoc Moth God'.) Pp. 175-80.
Related Types: Oracles

Mark 13
1. Studies
BRANDENBURGER, EcoN, Markus 13 und die Apokalyptik. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck u.
Ruprecht, 1984.
GASTON, LLOYD, No Stone on Another: Studies in the Significance of the Fall of Jerusalem
in the Synoptic Gospels. Novum Testamentum. Suppl. Vol. 23. Leiden: Brill, 1970.
HARTMAN, LARS, Prophecy Interpreted: The Formation of Some Jewish Apocalyptic Texts
and of the Eschatological Discourse Mark 13 Par. Coniectanea Biblica. New Testament
Series 1. Lund: Glcerup, 1966.
LAMBRECHT, jAN, Die Redaktion der Markus-Apokalypse. Rome: Papstliches Bibelinstitut,
1967.
PESCH, RuDOLF, Naherwartungen: Tradition und Redaktion in Mark. 13. Dusseldorf:
Patmos, 1968.
Sibylline Oracles 1-2

1. Greek Text
GEFFCKEN, JoHANNES, Die Oracula Sibyllina. GCS 8. Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1902.
RzACH, A., Oranda Sihyllina. Leipzig: Freytag, 1891.
CoLLINS, joHN ]., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Ed. J. H. CHARLESWORTH. Vol. 1.
Pp. 317-472.
KuRFESS, A. M. and R. MeL. WILSON, in: HENNECKE- ScHNEEMELCHER, 2. 703-45.
--
EARLY CHRISTIAN APOCALYPTIC: LITERATURE 4709
3. Studies
GEFFCKEN, jOHANNES, Kornposition unf Entstehungszeit dcr Oraetda Sibyllina. Texte und
Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Altchristlichen Literatur N.E 8.1. Leipzig: Hin-
richs, 1902.
KuRFFSS, A., Oraetda Sibyll ina III!. ZNW 40 (1941) 151-65.
RzAcH, A., Sibyllinische Orakel. PW II A 2 (1923) 2146-52.
Sibylline Oracles 7
1. Text and Translation (See above on Sib Or 1 - 2.)

2. Studies
GEFFCKEN, joHANNES, (See above under Sib Or 1- 2.) Pp. 33-37.
GAGER, ]. G., Some Attempts to Label the Oracula Sibyllina, Book 7. HThR 65 (1972)
91-97.
KURFESS, A. M., Sibyllinische Weissagungen. Berlin: Heirneran, 1951.
RZACH, A. (See above under Sih Or 1-2.) Pp. 2141-42.
Sibylline Oracles 8
1. Studies
GEFFCKEN, jOHANNES (See above under Sib Or 1- 2.) Pp. 38-46.
RZACH, A. (See above under Sib Or 1- 2.) Pp. 2142-46.
6 Ezra
1. Latin Text
BEN SLY, R. L. (See above under 5 Ezra.)
2. Greek Fragment
HuNT, A., The Oxyrhynchus Papyri. Part 7. London: Egypt Exploration Fund, 1910. P. 11
( = 15: 57- 59).
3. Translation, Introduction and Commentary

DuENSING- HILL (See above under 5 Ezra.)
METZGER, B. M. (See above under 5 Ezra.)
MYERS, jACOB (See above under 5 Ezra.)
'Apocalypse of Elijah'
1. Coptic Text
PIETERSMA, ALBERT, and SusAN COMSTOCK with HAROLD ATTRIDGE, The Apocalypse of
Elijah. SBL Texts and Translations 19. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1981.
ScHMIDT, C., Der Kolophon des Ms. orient. 7594 des Britischen Museums: Eine Untersu-
chung zur Elias-Apokalypse. Sitzungsberichte der PreuRischen Akademie der Wissen-
schaften, phil.-hist. Kl. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1925.
SniNDORFF, G., Die Apokalypse des Elias, eine unbekannte Apokalypse und Bruchstiicke der
Sophonias-Apokalypse. Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Altchristlichen
Literatur 17.3 a. Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1899.
2. Greek Fragment
WESSELY, c., Les plus anciens monuments du Christianisme ecrits sur papyrus. Vol. 2.
Patrologia Orientalis 18. Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1924.
304*
-- -
3. Related Hebrew Text and Translation

BuTIENWIESER, M., Die hebraische Elias-Apokalypse und ihre Stellung in der apokalypti-
schen Litteratur des rabbinischen Schrifttums und der Kirche. Leipzig: Pfeiffer, 1897.
STONE, MICHAEL and joHN STRUGNELL, The Books of Elijah. SBL Texts and Translations
18. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1979.
4. Translation
HouGHTON, H. P., Sahidic 'Sophonias Apocalypse' (transliteration of the Coptic text and
English translation of the Sahidic version of Apoc Elijah - so RoSENSTIEHL, p. 23;
see below), In: The Coptic Apocalypse. Aegyptus 39 (1959) 43-91. Akhmlmice [sic]:
'The Apocalypse of Elias'. Pp. 179-210. Ibid.
PIETERSMA and CoMSTOCK with ATTRIDGE, (See above.)
RosENSTIEHL, jEAN M., L'apocalypse d'Elie. Textes et Etudes 1. Paris: Geuthner, 1972.
STEINDORFF, G., (See above.)
RIESSLER, P., Altjudisches Schrifttum. Pp. 114-25, from Coptic. Pp. 234-40, from Hebrew.
5. Studies
ROSENSTIEHL, jEAN M. (See above.)
'Apocalypse of Thomas
1. Latin Text
BIHLMEYER, R., Un texte non interpole de !'Apocalypse de Thomas. Revue Benedictine 28
(1911) 270-82.
WILHELM, FRIEDRICH, Deutsche Legenden und Legendare. Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1907 (longer
recension).

jAMES, M. R., The Apocryphal New Testament. Pp. 555-62 (gives translation of longer
recension also).
SANTOS OTERO, A. DE, and E. BEST, in: HENNECKE- ScHNEEMELCHER. 2. 798- 803 (shorter
recension only translated).
Related Types: Testaments
<Testament of Adam and Penitence of Adam (Cedrenus)'
1. Ethiopic and Arabic Texts

BEZOLD, C., Das arabisch-athiopische Testamentum Adami. Pp. 893-912, in: Orientalische
Studien Th. Noldeke zum 70. Geb .... Vol. 2. Ed. CARL BEZOLD. Gief~en: Topelmann,
1906.
2. Syriac Text
KMOSKO, M., Patrologia syriaca 1.2. Appendix. Ed. R. GRAFFIN. Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1907
(two Syriac versions with a Latin translation).
3. Greek Text
NAu, F., Patrologia syriaca 1.2. Appendix. (See above.)
jAMES, M. R., Apocrypha Anecdota. Pp. 139-44 (includes the Greek text of the relevant
Cedrenus passage, p. 139).
I
i
- l
4. Related Armenian Text

STONE, MICHAEL E., The Penitence of Adam. Corpus scriptorum Christianorum orientalium
429. Lovanii: In Aedibus E. Peeters, 1981. (With English introduction.)
In., The Penitence of Adam. Corpus scriptorum Christianorum orientalium 430. Lovanii:
In Aedibus E. Peeters, 1981. (English translation.)
5. Translation
BunGE, E. A. W., Testamentum Adami. Pp. 242-48, in: The Book of the Cave of Treasures.
London: The Religious Tract Society, 1927.
jAMES, M. R., The Lost Apocrypha of the Old Testament, P. 2 (translation of Cedrenus
passage).
RoBINSON, S. E., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Ed. ]. H. CHARLESWORTH. Vol. 1,
Pp. 989-95. (With introduction.)
6. Studies
DEN!~, A. M., Introduction. Pp. 7-8, notes 23, 24 and 26; pp. 9-14.
RENAN, E., Fragments du livre gnostique intitule 'Apocalypse d'Adam', ou 'Penitence
d'Adam', ou 'Testament d'Adam', publics d'apres deux versions syriaques. Journal
asiatique 512 (1853) 427-71.
Related Types: Individual Works

Didachc 16
1. Greek Text
BrHLMEYER, K. and W. ScHNEEMELCHER, Die apostolischen Vater. 2nd ed. Ti.ibingen: Mohr,
1956.
2. Text and Translation
LAKE, KIRSOPP, Didache. In: The Apostolic Fathers. Vol. 1. Loeb Classical Library. Cam-
bridge: Harvard University Press, 1912. Reprint. 1965.
KRAFT, RoBERT A., Barnabas and the Didache. The Apostolic Fathers. Vol. 3. Ed. RoBERT
M. GRANT. New York: Nelson, 1965.
4. Studies
AuDET, ]. P., La Didache: Instructions des apotres. Etudes Bibliques. Paris: Gabalda, 1958.
BAMMEL, E., Schema und Vorlage von Didache 16. Studia Patristica 4 (1961) 253-62.
e 'Apocalypse of John the Theologian' attributed to John Chrysostom (Ques

l,
Jn Theol)
1. Introduction, Text and Translation
NAu, F., Une deuxieme Apocalypse apocryphe grecque de Saint Jean. RB 23 (1914) 209-21.
7
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CHARLESWORTH,]. H. (Princeton, N.J.)

HowARD, G. (Athens, Georgia)

by ADELA YARBRO CoLLINS, Notre Dame, Indiana

3. Individual Related Works . . . . . . 4695

In New Testament scholarship of the twentieth century, most attention

translation: The Rediscovery of Apocalyptic, tr. MARGARET KOHL. (Studies in Biblical

in Early Christianity: Introduction. In: New Testament Apocrypha, volume 2, ed. by

II. Definition and Typology

Before proceeding to a discussion of particular texts, a number of concep-

By 'genre' is meant a type of literature defined by certain prominent

the identification and definition of a genre based on an analysis of the explicit

2. The Genre 'Apocalypse'

As is well-known, the concept of 'apocalypse' as a literary genre is a

these texts are very frequently referred to in current scholarly discussion as

Mary', 26 the 'Story of Zosimus', 27 the 'Apocalypse of the Holy Mother of

of the Lord 1: 1 - 14, 32 5 Ezra 2:42-48, 33 the Testament of Isaac 2- 3 a and

Ill. Type 1: Otherworldly Visions and Auditions

1. Type 1 a: 'Historical' Visions and Auditions

The only early Christian apocalypse which contains a review of history

2. Type 1 b: Visions, Auditions, Cosmic and Personal Eschatology

Five early Christian apocalypses (probably six) belong to Type 1 b: the

The 'Book of Revelation'

40 ANDRE FEUILLET. L'Apocalypse: Etat de Ia Question. (Studia Neotestamentica Subsidia

material contains virtually no reliable indications of date. At most 11: 1 - 2

3. Type 1 c: Visions, Auditions and Personal Eschatology

Five early Christian apocalypses belong to this type: 5 Ezra 2: 42-48,

work is devoted to his post-resurrection revelations to the apostles. After the a

44 F. ScHEIDWEILER. The Questions of Bartholomew. In: New Testament Apocrypha, ed.

IV. Type 2: Otherworldly Journey

1. Type 2 b: Otherworldly Journey, Cosmic and Personal Eschatology

'The Ascension of Isaiah'

compilation of two or more documents. 45 There are two main arguments

The emphasis on another, heavenly world is apparent in. the role of

2. Type 2 c: Otherworldly Journey and Personal Eschatology

Nine early Christian apocalypses constitute Type 2 c: Martyrdom of

The 'Story of Zosimus'

47 See ALBERT M. DENIS. Introduction aux pseudepigraphes grecs d'Ancien Testament.

V. Summary and Conclusions

theory of an historical development from the visions/auditions subtype to the

In each case the revelation is mysterious and transcendent and is mediated

In a few apocalypses (Revelation', 'Hermas', Test Lord 1: 1- 14 and