The effect of rapeseed treatment by microwave and
radio-frequency application on oil extraction and oil quality.
Part II: Influence on oil quality*
The aim of our research was to investigate the influence of microwave
and radio-frequency (RF) pretreatments of rapeseed on oil quality. Oil
was extracted from the seeds through mechanical pressing. Few quality
parameters of the gained oil as well as special enzymatic activities of
the seeds were analyzed.
Microwave application at temperatures ranging from 80 to 100 °C (sur-
face temperature of the seed) reduced the acid and peroxide values in
oil, whilst the intensity of the oil colour increased. On the other hand,
there was no effect noted on iodine value. Thiobarbituric acid value
(TBA) and lipid acid composition of oil were not affected either. The
peroxidase and methylumbelliferyl-palmitic-acid-esterhydrolase (MU-
Pase) activities in the seeds decreased, which is very important in rela-
tion to the storability and the later processing of seeds or oils.
The advantage of radio frequency (RF) compared to microwaves in this
research was that no burning aroma was emitted by treating rapeseeds
at 120 °C so that the oil yield of the seeds by pressing could be further
improved. Despite this high temperature, some parameters of oil quali-
ty (acid, peroxide, and TBA values) of treated seeds have not so much
changed in general in comparison to untreated control. Like mi-
crowaves, RF-waves did not affect lipid acid composition of the oil.
1 Introduction
The use of microwave energy has become popular as food
processing technique for different plant and animal products
[1, 2] as well as for inactivating enzymes in stored plant
products to prevent their deterioration, e. g. in cottonseed
and rice bran [3–5]. Some effects of microwaves as well as
effects of radio frequency on the change of processing prop-
erties of rapeseeds are known [6–8]. Little is known about
their effects on rape oil quality. Since 00-rape is an important
source of edible oil, there is considerable interest in this pa-
per to study the effects of microwaves and radio frequency
on rapeseeds in terms of the oil quality.
2 Materials and Methods
Double zero rapeseeds of Brassica napus L. (except the
controls) were exposed to a laboratory microwave (power:
1200 W, frequency: 2.45 GHz) and a radio-frequency appli-
cator (power: 1400 W) until the different desired tempera-
tures were reached, before being pressed (type of press ma-
chine: Komet CA 59G). Few quality parameters of the
gained oil as well as special enzymatic activities of the seeds
were analyzed. Acid and peroxide values were determined
according to [9], lipid acid composition and phospholipid
content according to [10] and [11], respectively, whilst thio-
barbituric acid and iodine values were analog to [12] and
[13], respectively. Chlorophyll content was determined spec-
trophotometrically at 67 nm [14].
**Extended version of a paper presented at the 52nd International Con-
ference of DGF, Magdeburg, 13th–15th Sept., 1998.
**Institute of Agricultural Chemistry, Dept. of Plant Products Quality,
University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.
168 Fett/Lipid 101 (1999), Nr.5, S. 168–171 © WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH, D-69451 Weinheim, 1999
Irfan Irfan** and Elke Pawelzik**
Die Auswirkungen der Behandlung von Rapssamen mit Mikro-
wellen und Radiofrequenzen auf die Ölextraktion und Ölqualität.
2. Einfluß auf die Ölqualität. Die Behandlung von Rapssaat mit
Mikro- und Hochfrequenzwellen führt zu veränderten Verarbeitung-
seigenschaften des Rapses. Das Ziel unserer Untersuchungen bestand
darin, den Einfluß dieser Behandlungen auf die Ölqualität zu ermitteln.
Eine kurzzeitige Mikrowellenbehandlung bei Temperaturen im Bereich
von 80 bis 100 °C (Produkttemperatur) reduzierte die Säure- und Per-
oxidzahl des Öls, während die Ölfarbe dunkler wurde. Mit zunehmen-
der Temperatur und Mikrowellenenergie veränderte sich die Säurezahl.
Dagegen war kein Einfluß auf Jodzahl, Thiobarbitursäurezahl sowie die
Fettsäurezusammensetzung nachweisbar. Die Aktivität von Peroxidase
sowie einer lipolytischen Acylhydrolase in den Samen konnte infolge
der Mikrowellenbehandlung reduziert werden, was von großer Bedeu-
tung im Hinblick auf die Lagerfähigkeit des Rapses sowie die Weiter-
verarbeitung ist. Insgesamt wurden wichtige Qualitätsmerkmale des
Öls vor allem aufgrund der erreichten Enzymstabilisierung in den
Samen verbessert. Die Behandlung mit Hochfrequenzwellen zeigte in
ersten Versuchen ähnliche Resultate.
The peroxidase activity was determined according to
the method of Fretzdorff [15] where 0.5 M sodium acetate
buffer at 5.5 pH and hydrogen peroxide at 1.2% were used.
Lipolytic esterase (Methylumbelliferyl-palmitic-acid-ester-
hydrolase or MUPase) was determined according to Fretz-
dorff [16] with some modifications, i.e. mass of crushed
sample was 0.25 g and pH of McIlvaine buffer was 7.0.
It is worth mentioning, that the rapeseeds in both experi-
ments differed in type. This is the reason why the effects of
microwaves and radio frequency on the analyzed parameters
could only be compared with their controls, respectively.
3 Results and Discussion
By the experiment with microwaves, maximum tempera-
ture on the seeds’ surface was limited to 100 °C. Seeds treat-
ed at temperatures above 100 °C scented burnt and were not
considered neither for pressed nor for enzymatic analysis.
The effect of microwaves on some parameters of oil quality
at temperatures ranging from 80 to 100 °C can be seen in
Tab. 1 and in Fig. 1.
There were no effects of microwaves on the fatty acid
composition (Tab. 1) and on the iodine value of rape oil. The
iodine value of analyzed pressed oils lay between 116 and
118 g/100 g. As presented in Fig. 1, the thiobarbituric acid
value (TBA) of the oil was not affected by microwaves. On
the other hand, acid and peroxide values were reduced.
In comparison with other parameters of rape oil quality,
the effect of microwave on peroxide value fluctuated. In Fig.
1, this value decreased with increasing temperatures, while
in another experiment, where another rapeseed variety was
used, no effects were detected. It is highly probable, that
changes in peroxide value depend among other things on the
genotype and the quality of rapeseeds used [17].
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Tab. 1. Effect of microwaves on fatty acid composition of rape oil.

Treatment temperature [°C] Fatty acid composition [% of total lipid acids]

C16-0 C16-1 C18-0 C18-1 C18-2 C18-3 C20-0 C20-1 C22-0 C22-1
Control 4.3 0.2 1.6 60.2 19.2 12.1 0.6 1.2 0.3 0.0
80 4.4 0.2 1.6 60.3 19.3 12.1 0.6 1.2 0.0 0.0
90 4.5 0.2 1.7 60.5 19.2 11.9 0.5 1.2 0.3 0.0
100 4.3 0.2 1.6 60.0 19.4 12.2 0.5 1.2 0.2 0.0

The lower acid values of microwave treated seeds were
assumed to be a result of a successful inactivation of lipid
esterase in the seeds [18]. As presented in Fig. 2, the activity
of MUPase decreased strongly at temperatures from 70 °C
and above. Like other lipid esterases, MUPase catalyzes the
splitting of lipids in their ester bound [16, 19], increasing
rapidly the amount of free fatty acid in the product [20]. The
temperature effect was more dominant than the time effect in
reducing enzyme activities [21].
The other enzyme in this research is a peroxidase. It is
an important enzyme in most plant products. It is heat-stable
[22], and was used in this work as an indicator to inactivate
other enzymes. In Fig. 2, it expresses a rise in relative
activity of microwaves treatment temperatures at 60 and
70 °C. Higher than these, the activity gradually reduced.
Therefore, as the peroxidase shows signs of reduction of its
activities at temperatures from 80 °C, it allows other lipid
splitting enzymes in rapeseeds to assume inactivation at
these temperatures. This fact is very important in relation to
the storability and the later processing properties of seeds or
oils.
The advantage of radio frequency (RF) compared to mi-
crowaves in this research was that no burning aroma was
emitted by treating rapeseeds at 120 °C so that the ex-
tractability of oil from seeds by pressing could be further im-
proved. Despite this high temperature, some parameters of
oil quality (acid, peroxide, and TBA values) of treated seeds
have not so much changed in general in comparison to the

Fig. 1. Effect of microwaves on some

parameters of oil quality.

Fig. 2. Effect of microwaves on MUPase

and peroxidase activites (activity of con-
trol sample = 100%).

Fett/Lipid 101 (1999), Nr. 5, S. 168–171 169


control (Fig. 3). Like microwaves, RF-waves did not affect
lipid acid composition of the oil.
Through microwaves and RF-wave treatments, the oil,
phospholipid, and chlorophyll were easily extractable from
rapeseed. Therefore, the green colour of oils from mi-
crowave and radio frequency treated rapeseeds was more in-
tensive than that of untreated ones, and was similar in colour
to the olive oil [17]. However, the increase of phospholipid
and chlorophyll content in oil, which was caused by mi-
crowaves, as presented in Fig. 4, was lower than the one by
RF-wave treatment.
4 Conclusion
Microwave treatment improved some important parame-
ters of rape oil quality, like acid and peroxide values. It con-
tributed also to enzymatic stability in the seeds. Treatment
with RF-waves showed more advantages than microwaves,
since the seeds could be heated at 120 °C without showing a
burning effect. Compared to microwaves, the extractability
of oil from seeds after RF-waves treatment was higher and
the increase of phospholipid and chlorophyll content in the
oil were lower.
170
Fig. 3. Effect of radio frequency on some
parameters of oil quality.
Fig. 4. Effect of microwaves (MW) and
radio frequency (RF) on phospholipid
and chlorophyll content in oil.
References
[1] J. Giese, Advances in microwave food processing, Food Technol-
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[2] R. F. Schiffmann, Microwave processing in the U.S. food industry,
Food Technology 12 (1992), 50–52.
[3] J. Tao, R. Rao, and J. Liuzzo, Microwave heating for rice bran
stabilisation, Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic
Energy 28 (1993), 56–164.
[4] E. J. Conkerton, D. C. Chapital, and P. J. Wan, Microwave heating
of cottonseed: A pilot plant study, JAOCS 71 (1994), 461–462.
[5] G. R. List, T. L. Mounts, A. C. Lanser, and R. K. Holloway, Effect of
moisture, microwave heating, and live steam treatment on phos-
pholipase D activity in soybeans and soy flakes, JAOCS 67
(1990), 867–871.
[6] F. Ebrahim-Nesbat, C. Oberndorfer, E. Pawelzik, and W. Lücke,
Microstructural changes of rapeseed by different methods of ther-
mal pretreatment, Fett/Lipid 100 (1998), 398.
[7] C. Oberndorfer, G. Börner, and W. Lücke, Microwave- and radio-
frequency-application for improving oil extraction in rapeseed,
Fett/Lipid 100 (1998), 372.
[8] P. N. Maheshwari, D. W. Stanley, F. R. Van de Voort, and J. I. Gray,
Effect of microwave treatment on the microstructure of dehulled
rapeseed, Cereal Chem. 58 (1981), 381–384.
[9] Bundesinstitut für gesundheitlichen Verbraucherschutz und Vete-
rinärmedizin, Amtliche Sammlung von Untersuchungsverfahren
nach § 35 LMBG, Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin.
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[10] W. Thies, Schnelle und einfache Analysen der Fettsäurezusam-
mensetzung in einzelnen Rapskotyledonen I. Gaschromato-
graphische und papierchromatographische Methoden, Z. für
Pflanzenzüchtung 65 (1971), 181–202.
[11] DGF-Einheitsmethoden, Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft,
Stuttgart 1992, F-I 56 (68).0
[12] J. Pokorny, H. Valentova, and J. Davidek, Modified determination
of 2-thiobarbituric acid value in fats and oils, Nahrung 29 (1985),
31–38.
[13] DIN 53241, Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V., Beuth Verlag
GmbH, Berlin, 1981.
[14] I. Irfan and E. Pawelzik, Schnellmethode zum Nachweis von
Chlorophyll in Ölen, in Preparation.
[15] B. Fretzdorff, Bestimmung der Peroxidase-Aktivität in Getreide,
Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch. 170 (1980), 187–193.
[16] B. Fretzdorff, Vergleich zweier Methoden zur Bestimmung lipoly-
tischer Enzymaktivitäten im Brotgetreide, Getr., Mehl u. Brot 48
(1994), 34–38.
[17] E. Pawelzik, I. Irfan, and W. Lücke: Microwave treatment of rape
to ensure seed quality during storage, in: Conference handbook of
the 7th International Working Conference on Stored-product Pro-
tection, Beijing, 1998, 145.
Determination of free and esterified sterols in potential
new oil seed crops by coupled on-line liquid chromatography-
gas-chromatography
In vegetable oil, free and esterified sterols are characteristic con-
stituents of the unsaponifiable matter and provide rich information
about the oil quality. The sterol pattern of plants discussed as potential
new oil seed crops have been determined by using coupled on-line nor-
mal phase liquid chromatography-gaschromatography (LC-GC). The
content and composition of free sterols as well as the concentration of
sterol esters have been analyzed in seed oils of different varieties of
crambe (Crambe abyssinica), meadowfoam (Limnanthes alba, L. dou-
glasii), cape marigold (Dimorphotheca sinuata), lesquerella (Les-
querella fendleri), iron weed (Vernonia galamensis, V. petitiana),
spurge (Euphorbia lagascae, E. lathyris), and various species of cuphea
(Cuphea lanceolata, C. lutea, C. paucipetala, C. viscosissima, C.
wrightii).
Introduction
In the chemical manufacturing process, vegetable oils are
still used in a large scale, though the fatty acid compositions
of the oil crops so far cultivated on a commercially apprecia-
ble scale – namely soybean, corn, rapeseed, and sunflower –
are mainly restricted to a range of C 16 to C 18. Potential new
oil seed crops with unique fatty acid properties have been
brought to light by extensive screening programmes initiated
by governmental institutions in Europe and the USA. Large
amounts of long-chain fatty acids with chain lengths equal or
* Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Austria.
Fett/Lipid 101 (1999), Nr. 5, S. 171–177 © WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH, D-69451 Weinheim, 1999
[18] I. Irfan, E. Pawelzik, and W. Lücke: Einfluß thermischer Behand-
lung von Raps mit Mikrowellen auf die Qualitätseigenschaften des
Öls, in: Institut für Agrartechnik Bornim, VDI-MED Kolloquium
Agrartechnik „Qualität von Agrarprodukten“, Potsdam-Bornim,
August 25–26, 1997.
[19] C. Franzke: Lehrbuch der Lebensmittelchemie. Teil 1 Lebensmit-
telinhaltsstoffe, 2. Auflage, Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, 1990.
[20] K. D. Carlson, W. J. Schneider, S. P. Chang, and L. H. Princen, Ver-
nonia galamensis seed oil: A new source for epoxy coatings, in:
New sources of fats and oils. Eds. E. H. Pryde, L. H. Princen, and
K. D. Mukherjee, AOCS Press (1981), 297–318.
[21] I. Irfan, E. Pawelzik, and W. Lücke: The use of microwave to inac-
tivate enzymes in rape seeds, in: Conference handbook of the 7th
International Working Conference on Stored-product Protection,
Beijing 1998, 145.
[22] W. Baltes, Lebensmittelchemie, 3. Auflage, Springer-Lehrbuch,
Berlin, 1992.
Address of the authors: M sc. Irfan Irfan, Prof. Dr. Elke Pawelzik,
University of Göttingen, Institute of Agricultural Chemistry, Dept. of
Plant Products Quality, Von-Siebold-Str. 6, 37075 Göttingen, Germany.
[Received: February 12, 1999; accepted: March 3, 1999].
Marion Lechner*, Birgit Reiter*,
and Eberhard Lorbeer*
Bestimmung freier und veresterter Sterole in potentiellen neuen
Ölsaaten mittels gekoppelter Flüssigkeitschromatographie-
Gaschromatographie. Freie und veresterte Sterole sind charakteristi-
sche Bestandteile des Unverseifbaren und liefern wichtige Informatio-
nen über die Qualität von Pflanzenölen. Das Sterolmuster von Pflanzen,
die als potentielle neue Ölpflanzen diskutiert werden, wurde mittels ge-
koppelter Flüssigkeitschromatographie-Gaschromatographie (LC-GC)
analysiert. Der Gehalt und die Zusammensetzung der freien Sterole
sowie die Konzentration der Sterolester wurden in folgenden Pflanzen-
arten bestimmt: Abessinischer Meerkohl (Crambe abyssinica), Sumpf-
schnabel (Limnanthes alba), Wiesenschaum (L. douglasii), Kapringel-
blume (Dimorphotheca sinuata), Blasenschötchen (Lesquerella fend-
leri), Vernonie (Vernonia galamensis, V. petitiana), Wolfsmilch (Eupho-
rbia lagascae, E. lathyris) und Köcherblümchen (Cuphea lanceolata,
C. lutea, C. paucipetala, C. viscosissima, C. wrightii).
greater than C 18 are found in seed oils of Crambe abyssini-
ca, Euphorbia lathyris, and Limnanthes species. Seed oils of
various Cuphea species contain medium-chain fatty acids
with carbon numbers varying from C 8 to C 14. Natural
sources of hydroxylated unsaturated fatty acids are seed oils
of Lesquerella species and Dimorphotheca sinuata, whereas
Vernonia and Euphorbia lagascae seed oils contain epoxy
fatty acids [1–5].
While the fatty acid profiles of these potential new oil
crops have been determined in several studies [2, 3, 6, 7], mi-
nor components, such as the free and esterified sterols, have
not yet been investigated more intensely, though they pro-
vide rich information about the oils. In edible oils, content
and composition of sterols are used for the identification of
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