113

Charge-Gas Compressors in Coal Gasification and

Olefin Plants - 25 Years of Experience with a
Vital Plant Component
Rohgaskompressoren in Kohlevergasungs- und Olefinanlagen - 25 Jahre
Ed&rung mit einem wichtigen Anlagenteil

H.-O. JESKE
Compressor and Turbine Division, M.A.N. Maschinenfabrik Augsburg-Numberg AG., Untemehmensbereich
GHH STERKRADE, (F. R. G.)
(Received January 12, 1984)

Abstract

Charge-gas compressors are used in coal gasification and olefin plants. The gas to be compressed contains a great num-
ber of components, often with a corrosive, erosive or polymerizing effect. These components have a bearing on the
thermodynamic and mechanical behaviour of the machines. Since any charge-gas compressor failure automatically
means an interruption of plant operation, special precautions must be taken in the design and application of these
machines to ensure reliable operation even under extreme working conditions. The present report handles the most
important problems and their solution for charge-gas compressors.

Zusammenfassung

Rohgaskompressoren kommen in Kohlevergasungsanlagen und Olefmanlagen zum Einsatz. Das LJ komprimierende

Rohgas emhalt eine Vielzahl von Komponenten und korrosive, erosive und polymerisierende Bestandteile. Durch
diese Komponenten wird das thermodynamische und mechanische Verhalten der Kompressoren beeinflusst. Da der
Ausfall des Rohgaskompressors automatisch einen Anlagenstillstand verursacht, mtissen bei der Konstruktion und beim
Einsatz der Maschinen Vorkehrungen getroffen werden, urn einen sicheren Betrieb unter diesen extremen Arbeits-
bedingungen sicherzustellen. Im vorliegenden Beitrag werden die wichtigsten Probleme der Rohgaskompressoren und
deren Losung beschrieben.

Synopse heiten der Rohgaskompressoren in Olefin- und Kohle-

Rohgaskompressoren werden hauptsachlich in Olefin-
anlagen und Kohlevergasungsanlagen eingesetzt. Prozess-
schemata der beiden Anlagetypen sind in Bild I und 2
dargestellt. Im Ofen der Olefinanlage wird Erdol oder
Erdgas thermisch gecrackt. Im Reaktor einer Kohlever-
gasungsanlage wird Kohle unter Zufuhr von Dampf und
Sauerstoff vergast. Sowohl aus dem Reaktor einer Kohle-
vergasungsanlage als such aus dem Ofen einer Olefin-
anlage tritt ein Gas aus, das im wesentlichen aus einer
Mischung von Wasserstoff; Kohlenoxiden, Kohlenwasser-
stoffen und weiteren Spurenelementen besteht, wobei
das Gasgemisch aus bis zu zwanzig Komponenten be-
stehen kann. Die Aufgabe des Rohgaskompressors
besteh t &rin, das aus dem Reaktor kommende Roh- oder
Mischgas auf einen erhohten Druck zu komprimieren,
urn eine Behandlung des Rohgases in den nachfolgenden
Prozessstufen zu erm&lichen. Die Bikter 3 bis 6 zeigen
verschiedene ausgefihrte Rohgaskompressoren. Im vor-
liegenden Beitrag sollen die Merkmale und Besonder-
vergasungsankzgen beschrieben werden.
Die Rohgaskompressoren arbeiten un ter extremen
Betriebsbedingungen. Diese riihren daher, dass das
zu komprimierende Gas erosive, korrosive und poly-
merisierende Bestandteile enthalten kann. Eines der
wesentlichen fiobleme beim Betrieb von Rohgaskom-
pressoren ist die Vermeidung von Ablagemngen in den
Stromungskartalen. Bild 7 zetgt solche Abiagenrngen in
einem Laufrad. Anhand eines in Btld 8 gezeigten
typischen Kennfeldes werden die Auswirkungen der
Ablagerungen auf das thermodynamische Verhalten
des Kompressors diskutiert. Die Ablagerungen konnen
verhindert werden, wenn man wcihrend der Kompression
zwischenkuhlt oder in den Kompressor ein Waschmittel
einspn’tzt.
Der unregelmassissigeAufbau oder das ungleichmiissige
L&en von Ablagerungen wird Auswirkungen auf die
Laufmhe der Kompressorrotoren haben. Anhand der
gilder 9 bis 11 wird das Verhalten eines Rohgaskom-
pressorrotors auf Unwuchten beschrieben. Vergleiche

0.255-2701/84/$3.00 Chem. Enn. Process., 18 (1984) 113-122 @Elsevier Sequoia/Printed in The Netherlands
114

zwischen vorausberechneten und gemessenen Eigen-
frequenzen und Schwingungsamplituden werden an-
gestellt.
Grossere Feststoffpartikel im Gas konnen eine
Erosion an den Laufrtdem und an den Wellen verur-
sachen. In Bild I2 sind Teilchenbahnen von Partikeln
mit verschiedenen Durchmessern dargestellt. Daraus
konnen Schlussfolgerungen gezogen werden, welche
Komgrtissen hauptsachlich eine Erosion verursachen.
Der im Rohgas fast immer enthaltene Schwefel-
wasserstoff H,S kann eine Korrosion der Laufrdder
hervorrufen. Zun&hst werden die Faktoren beschrieben,
die eine Schwefelwasserstofflorrosion begiinstigen.
Hierzu gehoren der pH-Wert, Temperatur und Druck,
Konzentration des H2S im Gas, der Spannungszustand
im Laufiad und die metallurgischen Eigenschaften des
Laufradmaterials. In Bild 13 ist die Spannungsverteilung
in einem Radiallaufi-ad beispielhaft gezeigt. Im Zu-
sammenhang damit muss die in internationalen Regel-
werken vorgeschn’ebene Fordemng gesehen werden, dass
die Streckgrenze der in einer H,S-Atmosphriie einge-
setzten Laufmdmaterialien neben der Hriite einge-
schrankt werden muss. Die fiYir diese Zwecke ver-
wendeten Laufradmaterialien sind hochchromhaltige
Stdhle. In den Bildern I4 und 15 wird der Stahl GX 5
CrNi 13.4 in seinem Kowosions-Bruchverhalten und der
Massenverlust durch Korrosion in einer Testlosung mit
dem Verhalten verschiedener anderer Stdhle verglichen.
1. Introduction
Charge-gas compressors are used mainly in olefin
plants and coal gasification facilities. In an olefin plant,
crude oil or natural gas is thermally cracked in a reactor
furnace, and in coal gasification plants the coal is gasi-
fied in a reactor under the effect of steam and oxygen.
The gas discharged from the gasification reactor or
olefin plant furnace is an up to 20-component mixture
of hydrogen, carbon oxides, hydrocarbons and other
trace elements. The function of the charge-gas com-
pressor is to increase the pressure of the mixed gas for
further treatment in the downstream stages of the
process. The particular design features of charge-gas
compressors to be used in oletin and coal gasification
plants will be described in the following sections.
2. Functions of charge-gas compressors
2.1. Olefin plants
The ethylene produced in olefin plants is one of the
most important feedstocks in the chemical and petro-
chemical industries. Figure 1 is a basic flowchart of an
ethylene production process [l]. The feedstock to be
charged is thermally cracked in a tubular furnace with
the aid of high temperature steam. When leaving the
furnace at more than 1100 K, the gas is in an unstable
state and must, therefore, be abruptly cooled in
quenchers to maintain the equilibrium of reaction.
The heavy hydrocarbons, such as fuel oil and petro-
leum spirit, are separated in a downstream separation
zone. After being cooled, the remaining charge gas is
piped to the compressor, where it is compressed from
atmospheric pressure to more than 33 bar in four to
five stage groups with several intercoolers. In many
plants, a scrubber is installed between the last two stage
groups to separate the sour gas components. After being
dried, the gas is subjected to low temperature separation,
1 I nnA
Fig. 1. Flow sheet of ethylene plant: a, steam turbine; b, charge-
gas compressor; c, propylene compressor; d, ethylene compressor;
e, tubular furnace; f, quench cooler; g, oil scrubber; h, water
scrubber; i, lye scrubber; j, drying stage; k, cooling stage; 1, sepa-
ration column; m, pre-cooling stage; n, freeze-cooling stage; 0,
heat exchanger; p. cooler.
in which the low boiling point components (such as
hydrogen, methane and acetylene) are removed, permit-
ting the end products-ethylene, propylene, butadiene
and benzene-to be extracted in a final process stage.
2.2. Coal gasification plants
Large-scale industrial coal gasification units nowadays
treat the coal in reactors under the influence of steam
and oxygen. Three processes are generally applied: coal-
dust combustion according to Koppers-Totzek [2],
the fluidized bed process according to Winkler [3],
and pressurized gasification according to Lurgi technol-
ogy [4]. A rough charge-gas analysis for these three
processes is given in Table 1 [2] _ The hydrogen content
is of the same order for all three processes, whereas
there are considerable differences in the carbon mono-
xide, carbon dioxide, and methane contents. Charge gas
from Winkler and Koppers-Totzek plants is character-
ized by a low methane content, and therefore is very
well suited for use in synthesis plants. Accordingly, one
of the main applications of coal gasification is for am-
monia production in the fertilizer industry [5], and in
the future it may well be used in methanol production
facilities [6], since there is no need for steam reforming
in either process.
 115

TABLE 1. Charge-gas analysis.

Winkler gasifies Lurgi pressurized gasifier Koppers-Totzek gasifier

Charging material (vol. %I Lignite semi-coke coal coal Lignite

CO2 + H2g 18.4-26.0 28.0-32.3 12.0 13.0

02 0.0-0.01 traces traces
CnHm 0.2 _ -
co 30.0-40.0 16.4-22.4 58.1 55.9
HZ 40.0-46.0 38.0-39.4 28.3 29.0
CH4 1.0-1.5 10.9-11.3 0.1 0.1
N, + Ar 0.5-1.5 OS-O.4 1.5 2.0

The block diagram in Fig. 2 illustrates coal gasifica-
tion according to Koppers-Totzek [2]. The raw coal
is ground and charged together with oxygen into the
reactor where it is gasified at ambient pressure in several
parallel reactor units. The charge gas is directed to a
waste-heat boiler, followed by cyclone separators for
dust removal. The syngas is compressed in the charge-
gas compressors of the two plant modules and then de-
sulphurized. As can be seen from the block diagram, the
compressor is designed to increase the charge-gas pres-
Dompf
steam
-----------__-___________~
f----
the impellers. Solid particles from the reactor entrained
in the gas may cause erosion of the impellers. Further,
at high temperatures there is the risk that, during the
compression process, the flow channels may be clogged
as a result of polymerization of gas mixture constitu-
ents.
In the next section a short description will be given
of some existing plants. Following this, suitable mea-
sures will be discussed for restricting the erosive, corro-
sive and polymerizing effects of the charge gas by means
of an appropriate approach to design, metallurgy and
rating.
I

3. Typical examples of existing charge-gas com-

I

pressors

The gas analysis in coal gasification plants according

Fig. 2. Flowchart of coal gasification plant according to Koppers-
Totzek [ 21: 1, coaldust gasification; 2, charge-gas vessel; 3, elec-
trostatic precipitator; 4, turbine; 5, chargegas compressor; 6, de-
sulphurization; 7, carbon monoxide conversion; 8, carbon diox-
ide scrubber. For further process stages, see ref. 2.
sure from about 1 to approximately 30 bar, which is
the pressure level at which the gas is treated in the
downstream process sections, such as carbon monoxide
converter and the carbon dioxide scrubber.
2.3. Significance of charge-gas compressor
Both in olefln plants and in coal gasification reactors
operating at ambient pressure, charge-gas compressors
can be said to be the very heart of the plant, pumping
the charge gas from the reactor through the downstream
process stages. The most critical aspect is that for
reasons of capital outlay a standby machine cannot be
installed to take over in emergencies. Therefore, all
compressor components must be of well-proven design
to satisfy stringent requirements in charge-gas compres-
sor operation. These extreme operating conditions are
caused by the fact that the gas leaving the reactor con-
tains highly corrosive, erosive and polymerizing consti-
tuents. The H2S content of the gas (Table 1) may lead
to corrosion of the compressor components, especially
to Table 1 resembles the gas composition found in coke-
oven plants. In coke-oven gas the main component is
hydrogen, (about SO%), the remaining constituents
being methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and
nitrogen.
Dangerous trace elements like H2S and HCN are in-
cluded in this gas mixture as well. The first GHH gas
exhauster-which is the name used for coke-oven cen-
trifugal compressors-dates back to the year 1910. In
the following 70 years, well over 300 of these compres-
sors have been built.
This great wealth of experience was available for the
construction of charge-gas compressors. The first com-
pressor of this kind was built in 1937, being rated for
a suction flowrate of 48000 m3/h and a pressure in-
crease from 1 to 29 bar. The compressor shown in Fig. 3
was commissioned at an olefm plant in 1967. The driv-
ing power of 12 100 kW for both compressor casings is
provided by a GHH steam turbine. The compressor
impeller diameter is 900 mm.
The charge-gas compressor shown in Fig. 4 has been
operating in a coal gasification plant since 1967. The
machine consists of two casings with five stage groups.
In the double-flow LP section, the gas is compressed in
two sets of three impellers. The HP section has seven
impellers. The 4600 kW power required for the two
casings is supplied by an electric motor. In total, three
of these machine sets were supplied.
Figure 5 shows a triple-casing charge-gas compressor
for use in coal gasification. Here again the LP section is
116
of double-flow type using 2 X4 impellers. The outer
diameter of the impellers is 800 mm. The second casing
accommodates another two stage groups consisting of
four and five impellers. The HP section is driven via a
gear. The higher speeds thus achieved permit the dimen-
sions of the HP section to be reduced. Back-to-back
arrangement of the stage groups in all three casings
minimizes the axial thrust forces, so that the axial
bearings and the balancing drum can be relatively
smaller in size. This, in turn, means lower bearing losses.
The input power to the compressor, amounting to
Fig. 3. Double-casing charge%as compressor in an ethylene plant
with steam turbine driver.
Fig. 4. Double-casing charge-gas compressor for coal gasification
plant being shop-assembled.
12 600 kW in total, is provided by a steam turbine. Two
of these compressor sets were supplied in 1973.
The triplecasing charge-gas compressor for an olefm
plant undergoing works testing in Fig. 6 has a total
driving power requirement of 31 000 kW. Of this,
25000 kW are covered by a two-shaft gas turbine,
while a steam turbine provides the balance of 6000 kW.
The driving speed of the low pressure and medium
pressure compressors is 4670 rev min-‘. The HP com-
pressor is driven via a gear at a speed of 8888 rev mir?.
Fig. 5. Triple-casing charge-gas compressor for coal gasification
plant being shop-assembled.
4. Deposits in charge-gas compressors
A certain amount of solid particles, i.e. ash, is always
bound to be entrained in the gas discharged from the
reactor of a coal gasification plant. A great part of these
particles can be isolated from the gas in a separator
preceding the charge-gas compressor. The problems
liable to arise if these separators do not function pro-
perly can be seen from Fig. 7 which shows the partly
clogged flow channels of a charge-gas compressor. De-
posits were found mainly in the first impellers. The
pressure side of the blades was almost free of depos-
its, whereas thick deposits were baked onto the suc-
tion side of the blades. These deposits are caused by
flow separation on the suction side in the rear part of
the blade in the off-design load range. The wake zone
thus produced causes the particles to progress at a
reduced velocity compared with the smooth outer flow;
they are then transported by turbulence effects across the
normal flow path towards the blade surface, upon
which they are finally deposited. The reduction in the
flow channel cross-section fundamentally changes the
complete compressor performance map.
Deposits of this kind in the compressor flow channels
do not only arise if there is separator malfunction. With
rising compression temperatures, individual charge-gas
components may be caused to polymerize, i.e. to be
transformed into a solid phase which then forms a
deposit similar to tar in the flow channels. While with
Fig. 6. Triplecasing charge-gas compressor
Fig. 7. Charge-gas compressor
malfunction.
during works test run.
impeller soiled through separator
inoperative separators it is the first impellers of a stage
group which are affected by these deposits, deposits
caused by polymerization mostly arise in the later im-
pellers where temperatures are at a maximum.
In compressor operation these deposits may separate
and affect the smooth running of the rotor. The follow-
ing sections will deal in greater detail with the effect
which these deposits have on the thermodynamic and
dynamic features of the machine.
4.1. Effect of deposits on the compressor perfomance
map
The measured performance map of a triple-casing
charge-gas compressor such as that shown in Fig. 8 [l]
shows. the discharge pressure pz versus the suction flow-
rate I’, at a constant suction pressure p1 and constant
suction temperature T1. The steam turbine driver allows
the compressor flowrate to be adjusted by speed varia-
tion. The various guarantee points have been entered in
the performance map.
Any deposits of the sort mentioned above are liable
to change the performance map. For obvious reasons,
the extent of this change depends on the degree of soil-
ing, so that any quantitative statements are only valid
for the case under consideration. Qualitatively, however,
the empirical studies made on soiled and subsequently
cleaned charge-gas compressors have revealed the follow-
ing general tendencies:
 118
(1) The isentropic efficiency deteriorates with in-
creasing soiling. The reason for this is the higher surface
roughness and the ensuing higher frictional coefficients,
and, in addition, the higher flow velocities on account of
the reduced flow channel cross-section. Increasing fric-
tion means a higher discharge temperature, thus intensi-
fying the risk of polymerization deposits.
(2) The isentropic head (or isentropic enthalpy rise)
decreases with increasing soiling, as does, therefore, the
achievable discharge pressure.
(3) The performance curves become steeper, i.e.
frictional losses as compared with a cleaned machine
rise disproportionately with increasing deviation from
a fictitious design point. This also underlines the influ-
ence exerted by the higher surface roughness.
“1 -
Fig. 8. Performance graph of charge-gas compressor: discharge
pressure p2 versus suction flowrate r’t and speed n at constant
suction temperature 2’1 and constant suction pressure ~1.
(4) The surge limit is shifted towards smaller flow-
rates.
Basically, a soiled centrifugal compressor reacts in
a similar way to a soiled axial flow compressor on which
detailed laboratory measurements have been made. The
behaviour of axial flow compressors with blades with
an emery grain-rough surface is the subject of a report
by Bammert and Woelk [7]. Qualitatively, the reaction
of the axial flow compressor concerned corresponds to
the characteristics described above for a soiled centri-
fugal compressor.
Yet another influence on the driving power is exerted
by clogged coolers between the various compressor stage
groups. If there is clogging of impellers, deposits will
generally be found in the cooler tubes as well. The
change in cross-section means a higher pressure drop
for the same throughput, so that the pressure head to
be achieved in the next stage group is also higher.
Further, the deposits mean a reduced heat transfer rate
so that there is a risk of the necessary cooling effect not
being obtained.
4.2. Avoiding deposits through polymerization
Gas cooling between the various stage groups (cf.
Fig. 1, item p) serves two purposes: firstly, reducing
the stage suction temperature means a lower power
requirement; secondly, this form of temperature limi-
tation alms at preventing polymerization of individual
gas mixture components. Since some of these compo-
nents may be condensed during cooling, separators are
generally’ arranged downstream of the coolers. The risk
of exceeding the permissible threshold temperature
exists predominantly ln the final impellers of any stage
group. Gas polymerization therefore causes clogging of
both the final impellers and the tubes of the subsequent
cooler.
Every impeller increases the enthaIpy and thus the
temperature of the gas. The greater the enthalpy input,
the higher become both the discharge temperature and
the discharge pressure. In the event of isentropic changes
of state, a minimum discharge temperature would arise
at a predetermined pressure ratio. Assuming that the
charge gas is an ideal gas and that there is an isentropic
change of state, the temperature increase can be calcu-
lated from the necessary pressure rise:
K being the isentropic exponent.
In fact, however, the change of state is polytropic,
i.e. part of the power input is dissipated through fric-
tion, which increases the real discharge temperature as
compared with the ideal temperature. Discharge temper-
ature limitation, which reduces the risk of polymeriza-
tion, can thus be achieved through the use of high eff-
ciency impellers.
Another way of preventing deposits in charge-gas
compressors is the installation of a purging or washing
system. With this approach, liquid is generally injected
into the compressor suction piping and into the return
channels in the compressor casing. Since the liquid must
be evaporated, it reduces the intake temperature for the
next impeller and consequently also the discharge tem-
perature. Wetting of the flow channel surfaces causes the
polymers to be washed off.
Injection can be effected either continuously or dis-
continuously. The type of liquid used depends on the
gas composition and is fixed on an empirical basis. The
injection mass flow can be up to 3% of the compressor
rated mass flow.
Compression of the evaporated solvent requires addi-
tional driving power, which must be duly considered
when rating the machine.
4.3. Effect of deposits on the smooth running of the
compressor
Smooth running of the machine can be adversely
affected by asymmetric deposits building up in opera-
tion or by partial separation of deposits. Particularly
unfavourable consequences arise if the compressor per-
formance map is changed by deposits to such an extent
that the machine is caused to surge. ln these circum-
stances it may happen that only one of the stage groups
is affected by surging whereas the remaining groups
operate under comparatively stable conditions. Stresses
induced by surging may loosen the deposits and gener-
 119

ate unbalance which, in turn, leads to rough running the case of an existing unbalance. To assess this aspect,
of the machine. Unbalance can also be caused through the unbalance response of the rotor was made the sub-
the washing system if the deposits are not loosened ject of a study by using the method developed by Lund
uniformly but as coherent lumps. and Orcutt [lo]. For the purpose of theoretical simula-
The sensitivity of the rotor to unbalance can be tion, an unbalance of 12 740 g mm was assumed to exist
studied by examining the rotor vibration response.
Figure 9 [8] illustrates the natural vibration mode of a
charge-gas compressor rotor for the first and second
lateral critical speeds. The rotor has a total of six im-
pellers. The two couplings at the shaft ends are to be
considered as additional masses. To determine the
natural frequencies, the rotor is divided into sections
of constant diameter, thus producing areas with a
constant stiffness rate and constant mass moment of
inertia.

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

n tmin-‘I
Fig. 10. Measured vibration amplitudes of charge-gas compressor
rotor at bearing housing, shown as a function of speed.

100
I I I “nwuchtebene Menebene

Eigenschwingungsform fi_ir
1. biegekritische Drehzohl n=2325 min.’

t ’
0
n
A mox
-1
Eiganschwingungsform flir
2. biegekritlsche Drehzohl n=8581 min-’
Fig. 9. Natural modes of vibration and lateral critical speeds of
charge-gas compressor rotor; 1. und 2. Biegeeigenfrequenz = 10 20 30 LO 50 60 70 80 90 100
first and second lateral critical speeds. n 102[rni""]

Fig. 11. Measured and calculated vibration amplitudes of charge-

For the given example, the theoretical first lateral
critical speed is at 2325 rev min-‘, and the second at
8581 rev min-r.
Since the machine had to be built according to
API 617 regulations [9], the operating speed range had
to be such that the first lateral critical speed was 15%
below minimum operating speed, and the second lateral
critical speed not less than 20% above maximum operat-
ing speed.
The theoretical lateral critical speeds were checked
during the mechanical running test. The run-down
curve of the rotor with a natural vibration mode accord-
ing to Fig. 9 is illustrated in Fig. 10, where the vibration
amplitude at one of the bearings has been entered versus
the speed. Amounting to 2340 rev min-r, the measured
lateral critical speed is only slightly higher than the
theoretical value. The maximum amplitude at the
bearing for the fust Lateral critical speed is far below
the permissible limit according to API 617, which is a
measure of the quality of high speed balancing at operat-
ing speed level.
One of the main questions connected with deposits of
this kind is which way the rotor amplitude changes in
gas compressor rotor with unbalance existing at one of the
impellers.
on one of the impellers. The deflection of the rotor then
arising at the marked location as a function of speed has
been entered in Fig. 11 [8]. Although this unbalance
causes increased amplitudes at the first lateral critical
speed, these are reduced again once this speed has been
passed. At no time do the amplitudes rise to any value
which would jeopardize the rotor. The theoretical data
were checked by means of experiments, fixing an un-
balance weight to the impeller at the location assumed
for the calculations and then measuring the rotor am-
plitudes. The results showed good agreement between
theory and experiments.
5. Erosion
The deposits described in the preceding section may
also have an erosive effect through large diameter par-
ticles. Figure 12 [l I] shows the path of particles of dif-
ferent sizes in the admission casing of a turbo machine,
relating to those particles which entered the machine
120

through the inlet flange near the casing edge. Particles
from a certain diameter upwards do not follow the gas
flow path, It can be deduced from this illustration that
large particles entering the casing at the flange centre
are liable to collide with the shaft and cause correspond-
ing damage. Therefore, to prevent erosion of this kind,
the shafts are protected by sleeves as specified in API
617 [9].
Fig. 12. Calculated particle path in inlet casing of turbo machine,
referred to different particle sizes.
6. Corrosion
The gas analysis in Table 1 shows that the charge gas
leaving the reactor contains a considerable amount of
hydrogen sulphide, H2S. Additionally, there is 100%
water saturation of the gas in many cases. Hydrogen
sulphide in an aqueous solution causes steel to be em-
brittled [12, 131, resulting from the fact that hydrogen
separated from H2S penetrates into the metal and ac-
cumulates in internal micro-cracks or at crystal bound-
aries. The steel tends to be affected by hydrogen-
induced stress corrosion cracking. Fracture of the com-
ponent then occurs at stress levels considerably below
the yield point of non-embrittled steel [14]. Studies
[14] have shown diffusion of hydrogen through the
lattice structure to rise almost proportionately
tensile stressing of the component. Highly stressed
machine elements, such as impellers in centrifugal com-
pressors, are thus particularly jeopardized by a humid
then to rise again [ 171. As concerns the gas analysis,
a major role is played by the amount of H?S contained
in the gas. However, it has been confirmed by many
studies [17] that even small traces of H2S may well
cause embrittlement.
6.2. Stress conditions
Of the factors influencing hydrogen sulphide corro-
sion, the stress conditions are the most difficult to de-
fine experimentally. As a basic statement it can be
inferred from previous studies that in areas with high
stresses there is an increasing tendency to embrittle-
ment. Stress concentrations cannot be avoided in a com-
plex component such as a centrifugal compressor im-
peller, so that a study of the stress distribution pattern
in the impeller is obligatory in the rating of centrifugal
compressors. A complete description of the stress con-
ditions requires the introduction of three normal stresses
and six shear stresses. In most cases it is sufficient to
summarize the major stresses into a reference stress
value which is then compared with the stress at the yield
point. Figure 13 [19] shows the stress pattern in the hub
and cover discs of a centrifugal impeller determined
using a matrix calculation method. As can be seen, the
with
Computed results
- Measured results

hydrogen sulphide atmosphere. Further details of

damage to centrifugal compressor impellers through
sulphide stress cracking have been compiled by Kohut
and McGuire [ 151.
Corrosion through the effect of hydrogen sulphide
depends on three main factors [16-l 81: 604 I II\I I
the environment to which the component is sub-
jected,
the stress conditions in the component, and
the metallurgical properties of the component.

6.1. Environment
Factors with a bearing on the environment include
the pH-value, temperature and pressure, the gas analysis
and, last but not least, time. The pH-value in particular
exerts a very strong influence on hydrogen sulphide
corrosion. With decreasing pH-value of the aqueous HzS
solution, the corrosive effect is liable to rise. Experi-
ments have shown the resistance to hydrogen sulphide Fig. 13. Stress distribution in centrifugal compressor impeller
corrosion to decrease with increasing temperature, and versus impeller radius for a fixed speed.
 121

greatest tangential stress is found in the cover disc, i.e. Figure 14 [24] shows the corrosion fracture behaviour
near the transition between the heavy eye section and of GX 5 CrNi 13.4 in comparison with other chromium
the disc itself. As the radial stresses in the disc are also steels. As can be seen from this illustration, stresses
at their maximum value in the same area, the highest acting on steel grade GX 5 CrNi 13.4 were much higher
loads must be anticipated at this very point. The in- than for the other steel grades also examined at the same
fluence of the various geometrical parameters on stress fracture time. Similar findings apply also to the corro-
and strain conditions in centrifugal impellers-such as sion rates. Figure 15 [24] shows the loss of mass deter-
blade height, thickness and configuration, cover disc mined by laboratory tests for different chromium steels
angle and eye geometry, etc.-are discussed in ref. 19 versus the tempering temperature. With regard to this,
in great detail. Further studies made on centrifugal X5 CrNi 13.4 steel also achieved much more favour-
compressor impellers are described in ref. 20. able results than the other steel grades.

6.3. Metallurgical properties

With regard to hydrogen sulphide corrosion, the
metallurgical properties are defined by the extent of
cold forming, hardness, yield point, and the actual
structure. Historically speaking, there has never been
any failure of machine components due to H,S atmo-
sphere where the Rockwell hardness of the compo-
nent was below 22 HRC. Accordingly, this hardness
value is generally accepted as a fixed limit defining
the suitability of steel for use in a hydrogen sulphide
atmosphere. It is an API 627 requirement [9] that
all components in such an atmosphere must satisfy
this condition, even if there are only traces of HIS in
the gas. In view of the many influential parameters
described above, this restriction does not permit any
exception. It is an additional API 617 requirement
[9] that the yield point must be less than 90000 lbf 2 5 10 *o 100 ZOO 500 1000 ,lh,
1 50
inw2. In consequence, the permissible tip speed of the Fig. 14. Corrosion fracture times of different high alloy steels
impellers has to be reduced for strength reasons. In in NACE Standard solution (cf. ref. 24).
consideration of this requirement, i.e. limiting the yield
point maximum value, a greater number of impellers
must be installed for a given pressure ratio.
Steel grades with a soft martensitic structure [21] An7

containing only tempered martensite, with the structure I&?/d

being obtained through repeated heat treatment, have
given satisfactory results also with slightly higher Rock-
well hardness values (e.g. 23 + 1 HRC). This fact is taken
into account by NACE Standard MR 01-75 [22], in
which first the conditions are defined where there is a
risk of hydrogen sulphide corrosion. According to this
standard, slightly higher Rockwell hardness values than
specified in API 617 are permitted for several carefully
1c IOCI
tested material grades. Fig. 15. Loss of masses of different high alloy steels in boiling
acetic solution, shown as a function of the tempering temper-
ature (cf. ref. 24).
6.4. Well-proven impeller materials
In selecting the materials for charge-gas compressors Cast impellers of GX 5 CrNi 13.4 have given excel-
built by M.A.N.-GHH STERKRADE the wealth of ex- lent service in charge-gas compressors for a long time.
perience accumulated over more than 70 years through In addition to their homogeneous material properties,
the construction of gas exhausters for coke-oven plants these impellers produced according to sand or ceramic
was fully exploited, since-as mentioned above- casting technology offer the greatest freedom to the
there can be a similar form of corrosion in this type of design engineer in terms of impeller geometry and blade
machinery. Several materials have proved to be partic- configuration.
ularly suitable during this long period of time. By way
of an example, an impeller material will now be pre-
References
sented which, according to NACE Standard MR 01-75,
is exempt from the hardness limit of 22 HRC. The 1 L. Turanskyj and J. Kotzur, Design and testing of
classification of this material is ASTM A-487, Class turbo compressors for an ethylene plant, Mach.
CA6NM, GX 5 CrNi 13.4,1.4343 [23]. News, I (1) (1979) 4-16.
122

2 J. E. Franzen, Emige ijberlegungen zur Kohlever- 15 G. B. Kohut and W. J. McGuire, Sulfide stress crack-
gasung, Techn. Mitt. Krupp, Aus. A, 35 (1977) ing causes failure of compressor components in
83-94. refinery service, Mater. Prot., (Jun.) (1968) 17-22.
Uhde, Anlagen fiir die Kohletechnologie, Rhein-
16 H. Grafen, Einfluss der Temperatur und der Umge-
braun HTW-Verfahren, Dortmund.
bungsbedingungen auf das Ermtidungsverhalten
E. Mosberger, Benzin aus Kohle-der Sasol II/III
metallischer Werkstoffe, VDI Ber. (Ver. Dtsch.
Komplex, Lurgi-Information, (7) (198 1) 6-l 1.
Zng.), (268) (1976) 33-41.
H. Jtintgen and K. H. van Heek, Grundlagen, An-
wendung und Weiterentwicklung der Kohlever- 17 J. B. Greer, Factors affecting the sulfide stress
gasung: Teil I, Gas-Erdgas, 120 (1979) 5.59-567; cracking performance of high strength steel, The Int.
Teil II, Gas-Erdgas, 121 (1980) 6-13. Corrosion Forum, Anaheim, Ca., U.S.A., March 19-
6 F. Asinger, Methanol auf Basis von Kohlen: Uber- 23,1973, Paper 55.
sicht tiber einen alten Chemie- und ktinftigen Energie- 18 R. S. Treseder and T. M. Swanson, Factors in sulfide
rohstoff, Teil I: Herstellung, Erdiil und Kohle, corrosion cracking of high strength steels, Corrosion,
Erdgas-Petrochemie, 36 (1983) 28-34. 23 (Feb.) (1967) 31-37.
7 K. Bammert and G. U. Woelk, The influence of the
blading surface roughness on the aerodynamic be- 19 W. Fister and H. Heiderich, Untersuchungen tiber
haviour and characteristic of an axial compressor, den Einfluss von einigen geometrischen Parametem
J. Eng. Power, 102 (1980) 283-287. auf den Verformungs- und Spannungszustand von
8 R. Staude, Thermodynamische und mechanische Radialverdichterlaufrldem, VDZ Ber. (Ver. Dtsch.
Auslegung von Turboverdichtern .fiir Athylenan- Ing.), (264) (1976) 163-171.
lagen. Report delivered at the presentation of 20 G. Biallowans, Kurzfristig durchfiihrbare Spannungs-
M.A.N.-GHH turbo compressors to TECHNIP on berechnung fur geschlossene Radialverdichterrader
November 22, 1979 in Paris, France. mit Gitterrostelementen, Fortschr. Ber., VDL Ser.
9 Centrifugal compressors for general refinery services, 7, (75) (1983) l-98.
API Standard 617, American Petroleum Institute,
Refining Department, 4th edn., Washington D.C., 21 R. D. Kane, M. Watkins and J. B. Greer, The im-
November 1979. provement of sulfide stress cracking of 12% chromi-
10 .I. W. Lund and F. K. Orcutt, Calculations and ex- um stainless steels through heat treatment, Corro-
periments on the unbalance response of a flexible sion, 33 (1977) 231-235.
rotor, J. Eng. Znd., (Nov.) (1967) 785-796. 22 NACE, Material requirement: Sulfide stress cracking
11 H. Jericha, Minimizing blade erosion in gas turbines resistant metallic material for oil field equipment.
expanding flue gas from fluidized bed reactors, NACE Standard MR-Ol- 7.5 (I978 Revision),
14th Int. Congress on Combustion Engines, Hel- National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Katy,
sinki, 1981,PaperGT 11. TX, U.S.A., 1978.
12 J. Franzen and G. Vibrans, Versprbdung von Stahl
durch Schwefelwasserstoff, Werkst. Korros., 27 23 W. Gysl, E. Gerber and A. Trautwein, G-X 5 CrNi
(1976) 237-240. 13.4: Neuentwicklungen auf der Basis von 20
13 H. Grifen and H. Spahn, Probleme der chemischen Jahren Erfahrung, Konstr. Giessen, 7 (2) (1982)
Korrosion in der Hochdrucktechnik, Chem.-Zng.- 16-23.
Tech., 39 (1967) 525-530. 24 H.-J. Niederau, Entwicklungsstand nichtrostender
14 L. W. Vollmer, The behaviour of steels in hydrogen weichmartensitischer Chrom-Nickel-Sttie unter
sulfide environments, Corrosion, 14 (Jul.) (1958) besonderer Berticksichtigung des Stahls X 5 CrNi
38-42. 13.4, Stahl Eisen, 98 (1978) 385-392.