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66 IF[JAFO T@FI

6. Mgrjhut
Mgrjhut fkfifa
fkfifa ojifj
ojifj utfol
utfol ftfu
ftfu hgwfnjm
hgwfnjmfo
fo (ijfmjijt
(ijfmjijtfs)
fs) t`tfi
t`tfi kfifc
kfifc cjijfr
cjijfr rupjfa
rupjfa
kfrj 66 pgrusfaffo yfol mgrfkf kj MGJ pgr 46 Kgsgcmgr =56=.

Ijfmjijtfs [`tfi
O` H`kg Ofcf Ugrusfaffo (kfifc Cjijfr
]upjfa)
6 FFIJ Fstrf Flr` Igstfrj [mh. 4.57;,;
= FKAJ Fkaj Hfryf (Ugrsgr`) [mh. 2.2:6,=
4 FH]F FH] D`rp`rjok` [mh. <.7<<,1
; FO[C Foghf [fcmfol (Ugrsgr`) [mh. 4.14;,1
7 FTJJ Fstrf Jotgrofsj`ofi [mh. :=.;25,5
2 FW[@ Fstrf @t`pfrts [mh. 4.4:2,7
< MMDF Mfoh Dgotrfi Fsjf [mh. 412.=4;,7
1 MMOJ Mfoh Oglfrf Jok`ogsjf [mh. =26.=67,6
: MKCO Mfoh Kfofc`o [mh. 6=<.57<,:
65 [JOT [jcfa (Ugrsgr`) [mh. 6.7;=,1
66 [IHC [gigh`cuojhfsj [mh. ;;.4:6,5
Ugrtfoyffo >
f. Ajtuol
Ajtuolifa
ifa h`gbs
h`gbsjgo
jgo rfolg, kgvjfsj rftf-rftf, kfo stfokfr kgvjfsj!
m. Ajtuolifa
Ajtuolifa uhurfo
uhurfo hgd`ok`olf
hgd`ok`olfoo kfo hgruodjol
hgruodjolfo!
fo!
d. Ufkf hjsfrfo
hjsfrfo ojifj
ojifj utfol mgrfpf,
mgrfpf, 21% pgrusfa
pgrusfaffo
ffo mgrfkf0
mgrfkf0
NF\FMFO >
f.

H`kg Q »
Q ∝Q Ojifj Cutifh ( Q ∝ Q» )= ( Q ∝ ι );
FFIJ
FFIJ 4.57;,
4.57;,;
; -1=.
-1=.621,
621,:
: 1=.621,
1=.621,:
: 2.<76.<
2.<76.<=4.
=4.2;7,
2;7,4
4 ;7.
;7.717
717.<<=
.<<=.61
.61=.65
=.651.6
1.655.
55.555,
555,55
FKAJJ
FKA 2.2:6,
2.2:6,=
= -<1.74
-<1.74=,6
=,6 <1.74=,
<1.74=,6
6 2.62<.=
2.62<.=12.
12.;;2,
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1 41.
41.547
547.;==
.;==.66
.66<.4:
<.4:2.1
2.155.
55.555,
555,55
FH]F <.7<<,1
<.7<<,1 -<<.2;
-<<.2;7,7
7,7 <<.
<<.2;7,
2;7,7
7 2.5=1.1
2.5=1.16:.
6:.;47,
;47,5
5 42.
42.4;2
4;2.224
.224.<1
.<15.44
5.442.5
2.555.
55.555,
555,55
FO[C
FO[ C 4.14;,
4.14;,1
1 -16.41
-16.411,7
1,7 16.
16.411,
411,7
7 2.2=;.5
2.2=;.514.
14.;:=,
;:=,:
: ;4.
;4.1<1
1<1.;1=
.;1=.6=
.6=5.26
5.26:.5
:.555.
55.555,
555,55
FTJJ :=.;25,5 <.=42,< <.=42,< 7=.4<5.==6,2 =.<;=.2;5.66=.765.7:5,5
FW[@
FW[ @ 4.4:2,
4.4:2,7
7 -16.1=
-16.1=2,1
2,1 16.
16.1=2,
1=2,1
1 2.2:7.2
2.2:7.2=5.
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5 ;;.
;;.146
146.44<
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2.;42.4
2.455.
55.555,
555,55
MMDF 412.=4;,7 456.566,= 456.566,= :5.25<.<71.:;;,= 1.=5:.<27.:15.1:2.4=5.555.555,5
MMOJ =26.=67,6 6<7.::6,1 6<7.::6,1 45.:<4.6=4.=22,1 :7:.44;.42;.1::.:14.555.555,5
MKCO 6=<.57<,: ;6.14;,2 ;6.14;,2 6.<75.642.54:,5 4.52=.:<2.677.6<;.215.555,5
[JOT
[JOT 6.7;=,
6.7;=,1
1 -14.21
-14.215,7
5,7 14.
14.215,
215,7
7 <.55=.;
<.55=.;=6.
=6.767,
767,:
: ;:.
;:.544
544.:5<
.:5<.51
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7.<<2.1
2.155.
55.555,
555,55
[IHC
[IHC ;;.4:6,
;;.4:6,5
5 -;5.14
-;5.14=,4
=,4 ;5.
;5.14=,
14=,4
4 6.22<.=
6.22<.=<;.
<;.;:2,
;:2,6
6 =.<
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<:.15;
15;.=;7
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5.515.5
5.555,
55,55
∖ :4<.;72,5 - 6.57=.6;1,1 62;.4=5.261.=41,2 :.;4=.27<.;74.6;:.745.555.55
:.;4=.27<.;74.6;:.745.555.555,5
5,5
]ftf-
rftf 17.==4,4 :7.2;:,: 6;.:41.=41.5=6,< 17<.76;.464.:==.21;.555.555,5
17<.76;.464.:==.21;.555.555 ,5
If ∝ Im
 H`gbjsjgo ]folg3 H] 3 Ü 655%
If+ Im
412.=4;,7∝6.7;=,1
° Ü 655%
412.=4;,7 + 6.7;=,1
41;.2:6,<
° Ü 655% 3 ::%
41<.<<<,4
 Kgvjfsj rftf∝rftf 3 CK 3° °
CK
H`gbjsjgo Kgvjfsj rftf∝rftf 3 HCK 3 Ü 655%
»
Q
:7.2;:,1:
° 35 , 65 %
:4<.;72

»3 X∖ Q S :4<.;72
 Ojifj rftf∝rftf
rftfajtuo l3 ι 3 Q
ajtuol 3 317.==4,4
o 66

∖ ( Q ∝ Q» )
=
= 62;.4=5
62;.4=5.261
.261.=41
.=41,2
,2
Rfrjfos3 s 3 3 362.;
62.;4=.526
4=.526 .1=4
.1=4,:
,:
o∝ 6 66∝ 6

Ttfokfr Kgvjfsj3τ 3∞ T 3∞ 62.


=
62.;4=.526 .1=4,:36=1.61<,2
;4=.526 .1=4,:

H`gbjsjgo stfokfr kgvjfsj 3 HTK 3


T
»
Q
Ü 655%
()
6=1.61<,2
° Ü 655% 36 , 7 %
17==4,4

4 ( ι∝ Ck )
m. Whurfo
Whurfohgd`ok` olfo3 Th 3
hgd`ok`olfo
τ

4 ( 17.==4,4 ∝<.77<,1 )
° 36 , 1
6=1.61<,2

6 ;
Τ ( x∝ ι)
; o
hgruodjolfo3ζ 3
Whurfo hgruodjolfo ;
τ

6
: . ;4= . 27< . ;74 . 6;: . 745 . 555 . 555 , 5
66
° 34 , =
=<5.56=
=<5.56= .277.<14.==: .555.555,5
» ¶6s
d. 21% pgrusfaffo, mgrfkf pfkf hjsfrfo Q
° 5,556 + 6 . 5,567 35,562 3 6,2%
° 5,556∝6 . 5,5673∝5,56;3∝6,;%
Nfkj, hjsfrfo ojifj utfol uotuh 21% pgrusfaffo fkfifa -6;%-6,2%

=. Mgrjhu
Mgrjhutt fkfifa
fkfifa kftf fmsgosj
fmsgosj hfryf
hfryfwfo
wfo pfkf
pfkf U[ Frtafhjt
Frtafhjtff Nflfsgifc
Nflfsgifcf,
f, Nfhfrtf
Nfhfrtf
pfkf tfauo =552.

Jotg
Jotgrv
rvfi
fi Afrj
Afrj Fmsg
Fmsgos
osjj Nuci
Nucifa
fa Hfry
Hfryfw
fwfo
fo
=-; 2
;-2 65
2-1 62
1-65 66
65-6= <
6=-6; ;
Ugrtfoyffo>
f. Ajtuolifa nfrfh
nfrfh hufri,
hufri, kgvjf
kgvjfsj
sj hufri, kfo nfrfh pgrsgoi!
m. Ajtuolifa hgd`ok`olfo hurvf fmsgosj hfryfwfo!
hfryfwfo!
d. Mgrfpf sgmfrfo kgvjfsj kfrj fmsgosj
fmsgosj hfryfwfo
hfryfwfo tgrsgmut0

k. Fpfmji
Fpfmjif
f fhfo
fhfo kjmgr
kjmgrjhf
jhfo
o sfohs
sfohsjj mf
mflj
lj =7% hfryfw
hfryfwfo
fo yfol
yfol mfoyfh
mfoyfh fmsgo,
fmsgo,
mgrfpf hjsfrfo afrj yfol kjmgrjhfo sfohsj0
NF\FMFO >
f.
Jotgrvfi b bh
=-; 2 2
;-2 65 62
2-1 62 4=
1-65 66 ;4
65-6= < 75
6=-6; ; 7;
6 6
 Igtfh V63 o 3 7; 364,7
; ;
V 6 3 I6 + °
4 4
Igtfh V43 o 3 7; 3;5,7
; ;
V 4 3 I4 + °
Jotgr ∝hufrtji 3 V4∝V63 :,1=∝7,<73 ;,5<

V 4 ∝V 6 :,1=∝ <,=7
Kgvjfsj Hufrtji 3 3 3 6,=1
= =
:5
 Igtfh U :5 3 7; 3 ;1,2
655
j. o :5.7;
∝B ∝ ;4
655 655
Uj3tm + i 3:,7 + 4 3 65,4
b

( ) ( )
<
65
Igtfh U 65 3 7; 37,;
655

( ) ( )
j. o 65.7;
∝B ∝5
655 655
Uj3tm + i 36,7 + 4 3;,=
b 2

Nfrfh
Nfr Ugrsgotji 3 U:5 ∝ U65 365,4 ∝;,= 32,6
fh Ugrsgotji

m. Hgd`
Hgd`ok
ok`o
`olf
lfo
o hurvf
hurvf
V 63 7,<7
V 43 :,1=
= =
Igtfh V =3 o 3 7; 3=<
; ;
V = 3 I= + °
V4 ∝= V =+ V6 :,1=∝( =.<,72 )+ 7,<7
sh M 3 3 35,66
V 4∝ V 6 :,1=∝7,<7

d. Kgvj
Kgvjfs
fsjj rft
rftf-
f-rf
rftf
tf 3 CK
CK

Jotgrvfi b Qj b . Qj | Q ∝ Q» | »|
b |Q ∝ Q ° b°
=-; 2 4 61 27 4:5,5 ;.==7 =7.475
;-2 65 7 75 24 245,5 4.:2: 4:.2:5
2-1 62 < 66= 26 :<2,5 4.<=6 7:.742
1-65 66 : :: 7: 2;:,5 4.;16 41.=:6
65-6= < 66 << 7< 4::,5 4.=;: ==.<;4
6=-6; ; 64 7= 77 ==5,5 4.5=7 6=.655
∖ 7; ;51 4=2;,5 6:<.<65
Ojifj rftf-rftf 21 CK 325,;

Kgvjfsj rftf∝rftf3 CK 325,;


6:<.<65
Rfrjfos3 34.<45
74
Ttfokfr
Ttfo kgvjfsj 3∞ 4.<45326,51
kfr kgvjfsj

4. Mgrjh
Mgrjhut
ut fkfifa
fkfifa kftf
kftf fhvf
fhvf mgrsja
mgrsja ftfu
ftfu ghujtfs
ghujtfs (kfifc
(kfifc cjijfr
cjijfr rupjfa
rupjfa)) yfol
kjifp`rhfo pgr 46 Kgsgcmgr =565 kfrj =5 pgrusfaffo kj MGJ yfol kjpjija
sgdfrf rfok`c (fdfh).

Fhvf Mgrsja
(Ghujtfs)
O` H`kg Ofcf Ugrusfaffo
=565(kfifc
Cjijfr ]upjfa)

6 FK]@ U[ Fkfr` Gogrly [mh. 61.7<2,;;


= JDMU U[ Jok```k DMU Tuhsgs Cfhcur [mh. 1.:6:,77
4 CODO U[ Cgkjf Ousfotfrf Djtrf [mh. ;.<2<,5;
; GITF U[ Giousf [mh. 6.:4<,=:
7 FCBL U[ Fsfajcfs Bift Lifss [mh. 6.1;=,:4
2 HJNF U[ Hfwfsfo Jokustrj Nfmfmghf [mh. 6.221,71
< DBJO U[ Dijpfo Bjofodg Jok`ogsjf [mh. 6.;16,=5
1 JO]W U[ [`mf Uuip Igstfrj [mh. 6.644,7:
: \JOT U[ \jotgrcfr @sa`rg Cfrjog [mh. 6.574,;6
65 FDGT U[ FDG Afrkwfrg Jok`ogsjf [mh. 6.545,6;
66 NH@O U[ Nfyf H`ostruhsj Cf
C follfif Urftfcf [mh. <;=,:2
6= CMFJ U[ Cuimrggkgr Fkjrfcf Jok`ogsjf [mh. 2:=,5<
64 KI[F U[ Kgitf Knfhfrtf [mh. 7<<,2<
6; JOUU U[ Jok`ogsjf Ufrfkjsg Ur`pgrty [mh. ;:6,<;
67 \@CB U[ \fafof @`cjtrf Cuifrtaf [mh. ;7:,=2
62 C[KI U[ Cgtr`kftf Gigdtr`ojds [mh. 471,67
6< JKHC U[ Jok`sjfr Hfryf Cgkjf [mh. =:1,22
61 MUBJ U[ Mftfvjf Ur`spgrjok` Bjofodg [mh. 675,12
6: UOTG U[ Uuknjfkj fok s`os [mh. 647,55
=5 [J][ U[ [jrtf Cfafhfc ]gs`urdgs [mh. 644,42
Ugrtfoyffo >
f. Muftifa
Muftifa kjstrjmusj
kjstrjmusj rghugo
rghugosjsj kfrj kftf tgrsgmut
tgrsgmut..
m. Ajtuolifa
Ajtuolifa kgvjfsj
kgvjfsj rftf-rf
rftf-rftfoy
tfoyf.f.
d. Ajtuolifa
Ajtuolifa vfrjfos
vfrjfos kfo
kfo stfokfr
stfokfr kgvjfs
kgvjfsjoyf
joyf..
k. [gotuhfo
[gotuhfo nfrfh
nfrfh pgrsgo
pgrsgoi.
i.
g. Whurifa
Whurifa hgd`ok`o
hgd`ok`olfolfo kfo hgruodjol
hgruodjolfo.
fo.
. Fpfm
Fpfmji
jif
f pgcggcgrjot
rjotffa fhf hfoo cgcm
cgcmg grjh
jhffo pgol
olaf
afrl
rlf
ffo pfkf
fkf =7%
=7%
pgrusf
pgrusfaff
affo o tgrmfj
tgrmfjh,
h, cfhf
cfhf mgrfpf
mgrfpf fhvf
fhvf cjojcf
cjojcfii pgrusf
pgrusfaff
affo
o yfol
yfol
cgokfpfthfo
cgokfpfthf o pgolafrlffo0
NF\FMFO >
f. Kjstrjmusj rghugosj

Jotgrvfi b
64=,12-4.1=5,12 6<
4.1=6,12 -<.75:,12 6
<.765,12 -66.6:1,12 6
66.6::,12 -6;.11<,12 5
6;.111,
111,1
12-6
2-61.7
.7<
<2,12 6

m. Kgvjfsj rftf-rftf

Jotgrvfi b Qj b . Qj ° Q ∝ Q ∡» ° b ∡ Q ∝ Q» ∡ » ∡°= °
° Q ∝Q » ∡° °
b ∡Q ∝Q
=

64=,12-4.1=5,12 6< 6.:<2,12 44.


4.25
252,
2,2=
2= 66
66.5
.5:7
:7,,61 611.
611.26
261,
1,52
52 6=4.
6=4.65
654.
4.56
56:,
:,=4
=4 =.
=.5:
5:=.
=.<7
<76.
6.4=
4=2,
2,:7
:7
4.1=6,12 -<.75:,12 6 7.227,12 7.227,12 <.;52,61 <.;52,61 7;.176.75=,6: 7;.176.75=,6:
<.765,12 -6
-66.6:1,12 6 :.47;,12 :.47;,12 4.<6<,61 4.<6<,61 64.16<.;=<,67 64.16<.;=<,67
66.6::,12 -6;.11<,12 5 62.=<6 - =1,61 5 <:;,66 -
6;.111,12-61.7<2,12 6 62.
2.<4
<4=,
=,12
12 -4.2
-4.22
25,
5,1=
1= -4.225,1= 64.;56.254,5< 64.;56.254,5<
6:2.515,2
∖ =5 27.
7.42
425,
5,=5
=5 61
61.7
.717
17,,:5 =.6<;.1=6.17:,4<
5
]ftf-rftf 64.5<=,5; 4:.=62,6= ;4;.:2;.4<6,1<

Kgvjfsj rftf∝rftf3 CK 3 4:.=62,6=

4.151
4.151 .<52.=;2
d. Rfrjfos3 3;4;.:2; .4<6,1<
6:
Ttfokfr
Ttfo kgvjfsj 3∞ ;4;.:2; .4<6,1< 365.2:1,15
kfr kgvjfsj
k. Jotgrvfi b bh
64=,12-4.1=5,12 6< 6<
4.1=6,12 -<.75:,12 6 61
<.765,12 -66.6:1,12 6 6:
66.6::,12 -6;.11<,12 6:
6;.111,12-61.7<2,12 6 =5

:5
 Igtfh U :5 3 =5 361
655

( ) ( )
j.o :5.=5
∝B ∝6<
655 655
Uj3tm + i 34.1=6,42 + 4.21: 3<.765,42
4.21:
b 6

65
 Igtfh U 65 3 =5 3=
655
j.o 65.=5
∝B ∝5
655 655
Uj3tm + i 364=,42 + 4.21:3<.765,42
b 6<

( ) (
 Nfrfh pgrsgotji 3 U:5 ∝ U 65 3 <.765,42 ∝ <.765,42 3 5

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