Chromaticism

Chromaticism (Greek chroma, “color”), in a musical composition, the use of tones that do not belong to the musical
scale on which the composition is based. Essentially, a chromatic tone is one produced by raising or lowering, by a half
step (for example, F to F-sharp), an individual tone in the basic seven-note diatonic scale—A B C D E F G (A).

In medieval chant and in early polyphony (multipart music) certain notes were sometimes altered (notably, B to B-flat)
to conform to given aesthetic rules. In the late 16th century some Italian composers of vocal music introduced daring
chord sequences made possible only by the use of chromatic tones. By about 1650 the use of chromatic tones was
systematized as part of the hierarchy of tones and chords that characterized the newly evolved system of tonality based
on major and minor scales. In the 17th and 18th centuries chromaticism was used mainly for special effects or as a tool
to modulate to a new key. The use of chromaticism increased radically in the 19th century, creating the lush, expressive
harmonies of late romantic music but at the same time weakening the sense of key for the listener. By about 1900 such
extensive chromaticism led to a breakdown of the major-minor key system, and to the development of a new concept of
a chromatic scale, the twelve tone system.

Modulation (music)
Modulation (music), in music, the transition from one key (tonality) to another. To achieve this change, harmonies
common to both tonalities are used, usually culminating in either a cadence or the statement of a theme in the new key.
An important factor in a modulation is the pivot chord, which connects both keys; for example, in modulating from C
to B-flat, the pivot chord could be F-A-C, which is the IV chord (or subdominant) in the key of C and the V chord (or
dominant) in the key of B-flat. Modulation is an important feature of tonal music because the use of different tonalities
within a composition is one of the means of obtaining variety and of building large-scale works, such as symphonies
and concertos. Modulations occur especially in transitional passages, sections leading back to a main theme, and
development sections.

Cadence
Cadence, musical formula that conveys a feeling of repose at the end of a phrase or a composition. Such formulas not
only sound complete in a purely musical sense but also, because of their familiarity, lead the listener to expect a
temporary or permanent stopping point. In Western music from the beginnings of multipart music (polyphony), certain
chord sequences became standard at cadences. These sequences slowly became modified as musical styles changed.
With the evolution of traditional tonal harmony (early 18th century), cadential formulas that are still recognized
became common. The most widely used formula, called an authentic cadence, is a V-I progression, that is, a dominant
chord (one built on the fifth note of the scale) followed by a tonic chord (one built on the first note, that is, the tonic or
key note). A cadence that moves from the subdominant chord (built on the fourth note of the scale) to the tonic, that is,
IV-I, as in the “Amen” cadence at the end of hymns, is called a plagal cadence. Many other kinds of cadential
progressions exist as well. Their diversity allows composers to create different degrees of repose, from slight pauses at
the end of a phrase to complete cessation of motion at the end of a piece. See also Harmony.
In music consisting of unharmonized melody, such as plainchant or folk song, certain turns of melody may signal a
cadence. Rhythm or the recurrence of certain instruments may also indicate a cadence, especially in some non-Western
and 20th-century music.

Chord
Chord, in music, three or more tones sounded simultaneously. Chords are classified according to the interval between
their tones. The most common kind of chord is the triad, which is built of two consecutive thirds: If the bottom interval
is a major third and the top one a minor third, the chord is a major triad (as, C-E-G). If the intervals are in the order
minor third-major third, the chord is a minor triad (as, C-E-G or A-C-E). Less common are diminished triads (minor
third plus minor third, as, C-E-G) and augmented triads (major third plus major third, as, C-E-G). Triads can also be
described as having the intervals of a third (such as C-E) and a fifth (C-G) formed with the root of the triad (here, C).

When additional thirds are piled on top of a triad, sevenths, ninths, elevenths, and other chords result; the interval
between the bottom and top tones of a seventh chord is a seventh, hence the name of the chord. The most common
seventh chord, called a dominant-seventh chord, consists of a major triad plus a minor third (as, G-B-D-F); it is so
termed because it is the form of the seventh chord built on the fifth, or dominant, scale-note of a given key. Seventh
chords can also be built of other major-minor combinations. One combination is the diminished-seventh chord (a
diminished triad plus a minor third, that is, three minor thirds: G-B-D-F). Jazz musicians often use major seventh
chords such as G-B-D-F (major triad plus major third).

Chords have a strong aural identity, which they retain even when their tones are arranged in “inverted” order. Thus E-
G-C (first inversion) and G-C-E (second inversion) are recognizable to the ear as versions of the C chord, C-E-G
(normal or “root” position).

Other intervals such as fourths and seconds can also be used to construct chords. Composers such as the Russian
Aleksandr Scriabin, the German Paul Hindemith, and the Hungarian Béla Bartók explored quartal harmony, or the use
of chords built of fourths. Tone-clusters, or chords built of consecutive seconds, were used by the American composers
Henry Cowell and Charles Ives.