VGB PowerTech 6 l 2015
Developments in spray-type
deaerator applications
Bart Bramer
Kurzfassung
Entwicklungen bei Sprühentgaser-
Anwendungen
Der Sprühentgaser weist eine sehr flexible Fahr-
weise auf und entfernt gelösten Sauerstoff effek-
tiv aus dem Wasser-Dampf-Kreislauf. Es lassen
sich problemlos Sauerstoffkonzentrationen von
5 ppb (Teilchen pro Milliarde) oder weniger er-
reichen, wodurch sich die Lebensdauer des Kes-
sels erheblich verlängern lässt. Die Einzelbehäl-
terausführung benötigt nur wenig Platz, lässt
sich leicht steuern und minimiert die Anzahl
der zu verwendenden Druckteilbehälter. Es las-
sen sich verschiedene Ströme direkt im Entgaser
sammeln, was zum Entgasungsprozess beiträgt.
Der Entgaser lässt sich innerhalb des Kreislaufes
flexibel positionieren und kann darüber hinaus
auch als Kondensat-Vorwärmer verwendet wer-
den. Der Sprühentgaser ist im Hinblick auf die
Kreislauf-Anlaufzeiten schnell, da mehr oder
weniger sofort entgastes Wasser zur Verfügung
steht. Im Detail werden der Hintergrund der
Entgasung aus einer theoretischen Perspektive,
verschiedene Ausführungsüberlegungen sowie
häufig eingesetzte Konfigurationen zur Integ-
ration des Entgasers erläutert. Die Anwendung
von Entgasern im Wasser-Dampf-Kreislauf di-
rekt befeuerter Kessel, in Abhitzedampferzeu-
gern (HRSG), GuD, geschlossenen Kreisläufen,
Solaranlagen und Kesseln in Kernkraftwerken
verschiedene Spezial­anwendungen werden im
Detail erläutert. l gle vessel. The general arrangement of
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Author
ir. Bart Bramer (M.Sc.)
Stork – Process Equipment –-
Department of Process Engineering
Hengelo/The Netherlands
Deaerator developments
Introduction
The lifetime of steam-generating boilers
and their layout can be improved signifi-
cantly by reducing the degradation of their
internals caused by corrosion. This can be
achieved by reducing the amount of oxygen
dissolved in the water-steam cycle, which is
called deaeration. In general, deaeration is
the removal of dissolved air from a gas or
liquid. For reasons of regulation, efficiency
and cost optimisation, thermal deaeration
is currently the most frequently applied
technique for deaeration in industrial boil-
ers and is preferred above chemical deaer-
ation techniques.
Thermal deaeration is accomplished with a
so-called deaerator, i.e. a device where in-
timate contact takes place between steam
and water. The overall design of deaera-
tors has not changed over the last few dec-
ades. However, their field of application
has expanded significantly because the
application of energy efficiency technolo-
gies and new energy sources has increased.
The Stork spray-type deaerator has several
advantages with respect to competitor
designs, because it combines deaeration
and additionally, condensate pre-heating
and feedwater storage functions in a sin-
the spray-type deaerator is quite flexible,
11
9
2
10
1
Pump
1 Superheater 5 Alternater
2 Evaporater 6 Transformer 10 Pump
3 Economiser 7 Condenser
4 Steam turbine 8 Spray-type deaerator
Fig. 1. Typical example of a deaerator in water-steam cycle.
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because emphasising one particular func-
tional aspect only has a minor influence on
the design. Nowadays, Stork spray-type de-
aerators are typically incorporated in heat
recovery steam generators (HRSG), direct-
ly fired power plants, solar energy plants,
nuclear power plants and industrial steam
production facilities.
The deaerator is always situated in the low
or medium pressure end of the water-steam
cycle, in order to reduce investment costs
and increase plant efficiency. F i g u r e 1
shows a deaerator (8) in a water-steam cy-
cle that is typical of energy production ap-
plications. Within such a cycle, condensate
coming from the condenser has the high-
est oxygen concentration and is fed into
the deaerator (7 to 8). Steam required for
deaeration can originate from a variety of
sources, but originates in particular from a
low or medium pressure end of the cycle. In
the cycle of Figure 1, steam originates from
a low-pressure tap of a steam turbine (4).
Deaerated and preheated water from the
deaerator is transported to the boiler feed-
water pump (10) and then subsequently
fed to the boiler (11).
This article describes the background to
deaeration from a theoretical perspective,
and considers various designs as well as
frequently applied deaeration integrations
in a number of installations.
4
5 6
HP
LP
8
7
10
Pump
9 Drum
11 Steam boiler
73
 Deaerator developments
3
6
7
Pump
Fig. 2. Flow mechanisms in a Stork spray-type deaerator.
Theoretical background
Material degradation mechanism
Corrosion is expected to be the most critical
degradation mechanism in terms of boiler
lifetime. Wall thicknesses are reduced due
to corrosion and particles may be released
from the surface due to pitting corrosion,
which can then prove catastrophic for
downstream equipment. The three major
factors determining the rate of corrosion
are oxygen concentration, acidity and con-
ductivity. High conductivities can be ob-
served in the steam drum due to the accu-
mulation of salts. A high conductivity will
increase the rate of corrosion. The water
temperature also influences the rate of cor-
rosion, but is usually not a free variable and
is prescribed by the boiler requirements.
Oxygen concentrations required to extend
service life sufficiently, are in the range of
10 ppb or less. An oxygen content of this
level will result, together with an acid-
ity of pH > 9, in the formation of a corro-
sion- and erosion-resistant magnetite layer
(Fe3O4). Oxygen concentrations and acid-
ity levels out of this range result in much
more voluminous iron oxide layer (Fe2O3)
and eventually result in pitting corrosion.
It must be noted that a stable magnetite
layer requires a minor amount of oxygen.
The spray-type deaerator is a very effective
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device for controlling this parameter.
The physical background of deaeration
According to [1], the equilibrium between
a gas dissolved in water and a gas dis-
solved in steam is described by Henry’s
law which, amongst other gases, is valid
for oxygen and carbon dioxide. According
to Henry’s law at a given temperature, the
gas concentration in water is proportional
to the partial gas pressure in steam. Here
the partial pressure is the pressure exerted
by a particular gas component in a mixture
of gases. Deviating from these equilibrium
conditions results in gas transport because
74
9
1
8 2 Zone 01
5 complete deaeration process in the droplet
4 occurs in milliseconds. The residence time
Zone 02 Pump
a new equilibrium state tries to establish
itself. Deaeration of water is achieved by
reducing the partial gas pressure of steam
or increasing the water temperature, both
of which change the equilibrium. Such a
change creates a driving force, transport-
ing the dissolved oxygen from the water
into the steam.
The transport of gas molecules in water
is much slower than the transport of gas
molecules in steam, therefore the rate of
deaeration due to diffusion is almost fully
determined by the water phase. The rate of
deaeration can be increased, by having an
optimal contact surface between the water
and steam and by a dynamic movement of
these phases. When the water temperature
is increased to the boiling point at the cor-
responding pressure in the deaerator, the
total pressure equals the water-vapour
pressure, implying a gas partial pressure
equal to zero, which makes complete de-
aeration possible.
The removal of CO2 from the water phase
is analogous to the removal of O2. However
the CO2 concentration in the water phase is
already low due to the high pH value of the
water. Consequently, also for CO2 removal
good results can be obtained.
Processes taking place in a deaerator
The deaeration processes in the Stork
single vessel deaerator are presented in
F i g u r e 2. The deaeration process takes
place in two steps: pre-deaeration (step
1), in which water droplets are sprayed in
a steam space; final-deaeration (step 2), in
which steam bubbles are injected in a large
volume of water, travelling upwards and
coming into close contact with water.
Condensate with a temperature below the
deaerator operating temperature must al-
ways enter the deaerator through a spring
loaded injection nozzle, i.e. the spray noz-
zle (1). The spray nozzle produces a radial
spray of fine droplets, which are heated dur-
ing their flight to saturation temperature
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by the surrounding steam. Since this heat-
ing process is very efficient, the spray noz-
zle acts as a perfect condensate preheater.
The droplet size ensures a short diffusion
path for the oxygen within the droplet to its
surface. The droplets impinge upon a cir-
cular splash baffle (2) located around the
spray nozzle, breaking the small droplets
into smaller ones. This results in a maxim-
ised surface- to-volume ratio, providing a
large surface area for oxygen diffusion. The
in the pre-deaeration step is nearly always
too short for complete deaeration. Lower
oxygen concentrations will be obtained in
an additional final-deaeration step. After
completion of the primarily deaeration
step, the water droplets fall into the water
reservoir.
In the final deaeration step, the remain-
ing dissolved oxygen is removed from the
condensate, by injecting steam in a large
volume of water (3). Steam bubbles are
created which provide effective contact be-
tween water and steam, allowing the oxy-
gen to be transported from the water to the
steam bubbles. This steam enters the vessel
through a steam sparger (4), ensuring an
even distribution of steam bubbles in the
water and enforcing homogeneous condi-
tions in the deaerator. Simultaneously, the
water is intensively circulated by these mov-
ing bubbles. The gas transport takes place
more rapidly due to the circulation and
continuously ensures a large difference in
oxygen concentration at the steam-bubble/
water interface. This enhances the rate of
deaeration. The remaining steam leaves
the water through the surface with an in-
creased oxygen concentration and travels
into the steam zone of the vessel (8) towards
the primary deaeration zone. As the steam
condenses on the water, the concentration
of oxygen in the direct vicinity of the spray
nozzle is relatively high, making it possible
to vent a small amount of steam with an in-
creased oxygen concentration (9).
To obtain maximum deaeration perfor-
mance, residence time can be increased by
using a baffle (5). This baffle is placed in
the water reservoir and divides the vessel
into multiple sections. Another baffle near
the outlet of the deaerator (6) prevents
the water following a by-pass route to the
outlet. Finally, the deaerated water leaves
the deaerator at the bottom of the vessel
via a vortex breaker (7) or similar device.
The size of the vessel depends mainly on
two factors, namely the residence time
required to achieve the deaeration target
and the required maximum amount of wa-
ter to be stored in the vessel. The latter is
normally defined by the entire water-steam
cycle and is often specified by the system
designer.
Summarising, the functional features of
the Stork spay-type deaerator in the water-
steam cycle are:
 VGB PowerTech 6 l 2015
–– the removal of dissolved oxygen from
water to extend boiler service life,
–– water storage, required for start-up and
shutdown of the deaerator and allowing
for the collection of various excess con-
densate streams and
–– an efficient direct contact condensate
preheater.
The emphasis on the individual design as-
pects of the deaerator can differ to a great
extent and depend on the specific applica-
tion.
Design considerations
Most spray-type deaerators are installed
horizontally. This horizontal configuration
has a low centre of gravity and requires
only a minimal support structure. It distrib-
utes the steam perfectly and allows a small
number of by-pass streams to the deaera-
tor outlet. Careful attention must be paid to
the layout of the deaerator and its immedi-
ate surroundings, the feedwater pumps
and the routing of pipework. Nevertheless
this is very flexible. Most of the important
design considerations for spray-type de-
aerators are given in this section.
Steam and water sources
This section focuses on the sources re-
quired to operate the deaerator, i.e. water
and steam as shown in Figure 2. Steam is
required to achieve deaeration and for
heating up cold condensate and can be
supplied from a large variety of sources,
e.g. a boiler, a steam turbine or an external
production facility. The deaerator can op-
erate using saturated, superheated or wet
steam. Saturated steam can originate from
a low-pressure steam drum, an evapora-
tor section of the boiler or a steam turbine.
Wet steam often originates from a hot con-
densate source from an economiser, which
operates at a higher pressure. Superheated
steam is usually obtained from a low- or
medium-pressure tap at a steam turbine.
The steam enters the deaerator through
a steam sparger equipped with loading
pipes, located below the water level. The
steam sparger is available in several de-
signs, largely dependent on the operating
modes and the deaerator start-up philoso-
phy. Condensate flows with a temperature
lower than the deaerator operating temper-
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ature (cold) should be fed into the deaera-
tor using the spray nozzle. On the other
hand, condensate flows with a temperature
higher than the deaerator operating tem-
perature (hot) should be injected below
the water level where they will flash into
a water-steam mixture. Hot condensate in-
jection must take place through a sparger
or perforated pipe, which evenly distrib-
utes the water-steam mixture in the water
reservoir. The sizing of the deaerator is
predominantly determined by the required
holdup volume, in order to safely feed the
boiler feedwater pump in all conditions.
The deaerated condensate is discharged us-
ing the outlet device, situated at the bottom
of the deaerator in a direction opposite to
the direction of the spray nozzle.
Deaerator control
The deaerator plays a major role under
almost every power plant operating condi-
tion; therefore a proper design of its con-
trol system is important and can be criti-
cal for the entire power plant. Deaerators
generally operate in a sliding- or constant
pressure regime which is determined by
the steam source. A deaerator obtaining
steam from a steam turbine tap is operat-
ing in a sliding pressure regime, in which
superheated steam enters the deaerator
directly without control. The deaerator
operating pressure will vary dependent on
the load changes in the steam turbine. The
water level in the deaerator is controlled by
monitoring the incoming condensate flow
and must be kept at the desired level. The
incoming condensate flow needs to be bal-
anced with the amount of water discharged
from the deaerator. This is achieved by an
external control loop. The water level con-
trol is the only control system for a sliding
pressure operated deaerator. It can also
regulate a separate, relatively small uncon-
trolled steam source as long as it does not
interfere with the normal control system.
For a deaerator operating at constant pres-
sure, an additional pressure control system
is required in addition to the water level
control. Pressure control for spray-type
deaerators is relatively simple because the
steam is injected into the water reservoir,
making use of the huge buffer. This en-
sures smooth continuous pressure control.
To ensure proper control of the deaerator
pressure, the steam flow must always be
sufficiently high.
Competing deaerator types require an ad-
ditional feed forward control from the
steam inlet, which makes the spray-type
deaerator effective in terms of control.
Start-up procedures
Deaerator start-up procedures are often de-
signed in close cooperation with the plant
designer. During a cold start-up, the water
level in the deaerator should be at least the
lowest water level allowed (LLWL). During
the start-up period, the deaerator is heated
and pressurised with steam, until normal
operating conditions are achieved. During
start-up, steam typically originates from a
start-up boiler or other steam supply. Air
is removed using start-up vents, while the
temperature and pressure are rising. When
normal operating conditions are achieved
(temperature and pressure), the spray noz-
zle is used to increase the amount of water
to the normal level (NWL). Subsequently,
the steam feed can be switched to its regu-
lar source, setting the deaerator to normal
operation mode. Effectively, the deaerator
delivers deaerated water right from the
start.
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Deaerator developments
Steam turbine trip
In sliding pressure mode the deaerator is
connected to a turbine tap and variations
in the steam turbine flow pass directly into
the deaerator. When a steam turbine trips,
the boiler steam flow is halted within a few
seconds and redirected through a by-pass
loop. During this period, the deaerator
steam flow is halted resulting in a pressure
and temperature decay in the deaerator.
Due to the opening time of the by-pass
valve and condensation of steam in the pip-
ing, the steam from the by-pass enters the
deaerator after approximately one minute.
Simultaneously, the temperature of the
incoming condensate falls drastically. The
deaerator will be fed with steam from this
high-pressure by-pass and in parallel the
pressure will drop. During these pressure
reductions, the saturation temperature in
the deaerator decreases and some portion
of the water reservoir gets converted into
steam. Consequently, the steam volume in
the deaerator increases and pushes up the
water column (swell). A spray-type deaera-
tor can easily handle the sudden flow vari-
ations caused by a turbine trip because all
the flows are balanced against each other
in the water reservoir.
Boiler feedwater pump
Reliable performance of the boiler feed-
water pump is required under all circum-
stances. The pressure at the pump inlet is
an important factor related to its lifetime in
terms of pump cavitation. If the pressure at
the pump inlet is close to the local vapour
pressure, vapour bubbles could arise which
then have a destructive effect on the inter-
nal components of the pump when they
implode. A parameter expressing the safety
margin against pump cavitation is the net
positive suction head (NPSH), which is de-
fined as the difference between the static
pressure at the pump inlet and the local
vapour pressure. Here, the static pressure
at the pump inlet depends on the deaerator
operating pressure, the hydraulic head cre-
ated by the water column and the pressure
loss in the piping, valves, outlet nozzle,
vortex breaker and other equipment. The
minimum NPSH (R) required for a pump
depends on its design and is specified by
the pump supplier. To overcome pump cav-
itation and achieve maximum NPSH, the
deaerator needs to be installed at a level
significantly above the level of the pump, in
order to obtain sufficient hydraulic head.
When designing the pump layout, the fol-
lowing operational aspects should be taken
into account. For a sliding pressure oper-
ated deaerator, variations in the deaerator
pressure travel at the local speed of sound
to the suction side of the pump. Accompa-
nying variations in the temperature travel
significantly more slowly to the pump and
depend on the residence time of a water
particle in the suction pipe. Sudden re-
ductions in the deaerator pressure can be
75
 Deaerator developments
critical in respect of cavitation, because the
pump inlet temperatures can become very
close to the local saturation temperature.
The available NPSH (A) can fall considera-
bly during such an event. To reduce the risk
of cavitation, flow velocities in the suction
pipe need to be high to increase the tem-
perature propagation speed. On the other
hand, the flow velocity needs to be limited,
in order to reduce the pressure losses. The
designer must compromise between those
aspects. Significant pressure losses close
to the deaerator level should be limited as
much as possible, because here the local
vapour pressure can be reached relatively
quickly and consequently, evaporation will
occur inside the piping. Pressure losses
due to the flow entering the suction pipe
depend largely on the shape of the inlet
of this pipe and can be a significant fac-
tor giving rise to cavitation. Consequently,
streamlined suction pipe inlets (nozzle)
and the vortex breaker are required to
minimise pressure loss. Horizontal pip-
ing parts and valves at the deaerator level
should be omitted and should be placed at
a level close to the feedwater pump where
the NPSH is maximal.
Deaerator applications
Deaeration, preheating and water/steam
storage can be easily combined in the
spray-type deaerator. The emphasis of a
functional aspect of the deaerator depends
on the application. Commonly applied de-
aerator integrations are summarised in this
section.
Power generation from fossil fuels
A common application for deaerators is
found in fossil fuel powered boilers or
heat recovery steam generators (HRSG).
Deaerators are situated in the low- or me-
dium pressure end of the water-steam cy-
cle, in order to reduce investment costs and
increase plant efficiency. Efficiency losses
due to deaeration are minimised by con-
suming the lowest possible steam quality
for deaeration.
In conventional, directly fired power
plants, fossil fuel is combusted in a steam
generating boiler which powers a steam
turbine. The efficiency of such plants can
VGB PowerTech - Autorenexemplar - © 2015
be improved by preheating the fresh air
used for combustion. The air preheating
takes place by using heat from the exhaust
gasses. Returning condensate streams
from the air pre-heater and the primary HP
condensate preheater are typically mixed
in the deaerator. The deaerator operating
conditions are often determined by the
steam turbine tap serving as a steam sup-
ply for the deaerator.
Another efficient manner to generate elec-
trical power from fossil fuel is by coupling
a gas turbine to HRSG. Here, hot exhaust
gasses from the gas turbine exchange heat
with the water-steam cycle of the HRSG
76
which in its turn powers a steam turbine. In
such plants, deaerators are often operated
at a constant pressure, slightly above at-
mospheric pressure or into vacuum. Steam
is often supplied from an LP drum or econ-
omiser section. In an HRSG arrangement,
efficiency cannot be increased by pre-heat-
ing the inlet air of the gas turbine, but is
increased by pre-heating the condensate.
Preheating the condensate is performed by
cooling the flue gasses. This takes place at
the coldest end of the HRSG using a con-
densate pre-heater. For the deaerator feed,
the lowest enthalpy heat source must be
used. Due to their versatility, spray-type
deaerators can be integrated relatively eas-
ily within the HRSG cycle.
Often, the operating pressure of the de-
aerator is determined by the critical dew
point of the flue gas which depends on the
combusted fuel. To avoid external tube cor-
rosion, stack temperatures must not fall be-
low the local water or acid dew point. The
most critical section of the boiler in respect
of flue gas condensation is located at the
coldest end, where feedwater is supplied.
Critical flue gas dew points are typically
around 60 and 130 °C for gas and oil op-
eration, respectively. The boiler feedwater
temperature is often determined by the
deaerator conditions and should have a
safety margin relative to the actual dew
point. Due to its versatility, the same spray-
type deaerator can easily fulfil vacuum or
higher pressure operating requirements
and can be easily adapted to meet oil and
gas fired power plant requirements.
Closed loop cycle
In a closed loop cycle, condensate from the
condenser will be directly fed to the boiler
feedwater pump without passing through
the deaerator. In this case, the deaerator is
installed in a bypass loop and operates only
on demand, i.e. in situations where extra
make-up water is supplied, oxygen leaks
occur or during start-up. Typically the
steam supply originates from a low-pres-
sure steam drum and cold condensate orig-
inates from the condenser with condensate
preheater. Under normal operating condi-
tions, the deaerator is maintained in hot
standby mode. The water storage function-
ality of the deaerator can be shifted to the
condenser hot well, leading to a compact
deaerator size. If the deaerator volume is
small, it can also be oriented vertically, re-
ducing its footprint. This makes its location
at the plant highly flexible.
Solar power plants
In concentrated solar power (CSP) plants
a large area of sunlight is focused into a
concentrated beam, which is used as heat
source for the power generation process.
This heat is often primarily absorbed in
a sodium salt cycle, which acts as heat
source for a parallel operating cycle with
water and steam containing a deaerator.
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Examples of such applications are: para-
bolic trough plants and solar power tow-
ers. During peak hours thermal energy is
extracted from the cycle. Sunlight is not
available during the night; therefore much
attention must be paid to the insulation of
the CSP cycles. A typical deaerator vessel
has a relatively low surface-to-volume ratio
and can be insulated very effectively. Typi-
cal values for overnight cooling are 2 °C or
less. The deaerator operates in hot-standby
mode during the night with automatically
operating purge vents kept closed to avoid
unwanted steam losses. Thermal segrega-
tion during a long standby mode period
can always be avoided because, if neces-
sary, the medium can be mixed by injecting
a small amount of steam which maintains
homogeneous conditions. No delay is re-
quired for deaerating the plant first thing
in the morning because the water in the
reservoir is adequately homogenised and
up to its start-up level. Likewise pressure
and temperature correspond to the start-
up conditions.
Nuclear power plants
Water steam-cycles of nuclear and con-
ventional facilities are quite similar, but
differ typically in the maximum conditions
allowed for temperature and pressure.
Consequently, the flow rates of steam and
condensate need to be significantly high-
er, in order to generate a similar amount
of electrical power. For such high con-
densate flows in the nuclear cycle (up to
6,000 t/h), the preheating function of the
deaerator is much more in demand, often
resulting in multiple spray nozzles. Oxy-
gen concentrations of condensate flows
brought into the deaerator are typically
less than 50 ppb, because leakage and
make-up flow quantities are relatively
small. In spite of the high flow rates pre-
sent, the water storage capacity can be
kept limited, because residence time re-
quirements for nuclear power plants are
relatively small (2 to 5 minutes) compared
to conventional power plants (5 to 15 min-
utes). Single vessel spray-type deaerators
are often applied in nuclear power plants,
because they combine pre-heating, de-
aeration and water storage aspects by ef-
ficiently using the available space.
In a nuclear power plant all emissions are
stringently limited; therefore the water-
steam cycle needs to be closed. Vent flows
from the deaerator need to be redirected
to the condenser where the oxygen and
other non-condensables are removed. Risk
mitigation is of highest priority in nuclear
plants, therefore extra attention must be
paid to non-destructive testing, detailed
load analysis and proper operation of the
feedwater pump under all conditions.
Internal drum deaerators
In a standard spray-type deaerator, differ-
ent streams can be easily mixed. It offers
 VGB PowerTech 6 l 2015 Deaerator developments

Deaerator as steam accumulator

10
1 able to release steam when the demand
2 steam when the demand is low. When the
9
6 be injected into the deaerator/accumula-
3 5 4 7
8
2D view
Fig. 3. Schematic representation of an internal drum deaerator.
a water storage capability and can effec-
tively preheat condensate. If these aspects
are not of primary concern, deaeration in
an encapsulated box placed inside the LP
drum could be an effective solution. Inter-
nal drum deaeration (IDD) can be applied
for condensate with low oxygen concen-
tration, typically below 100 ppb. A typi-
cal example of an IDD system is shown in
F i g u r e 3.
Condensate enters an IDD through a regu-
lar spray nozzle (1), running through a
primary deaeration zone and pre-heating
step. Subsequently, the condensate drops
onto an inclined plate (2) and enters a
water reservoir at the lower section of
the IDD (3). The water travels to the exit
(4), while steam is injected into the water
reservoir using a series of steam chargers
3D view
(5), i.e. the final deaeration step. A baffle
plate (6) fixes the water level and holds
up the water reservoir. A small portion
of the steam is vented at the top of the
IDD (10), discharging steam with a high
oxygen concentration. The excess water
leaves the IDD by the discharge pipes (7)
and drops into the drum. The IDD operates
at a pressure slightly lower than the drum
pressure, therefore steam can enter the
deaerator (9) directly from the drum and
external steam supply is not required. The
IDD requires no additional control and can
handle condensate capacities up to 500
t/h, making it a simple and economic de-
aeration device. A schematic overview of
the IDD arrangement in an HRSG is shown
in F i g u r e 4.
Besides feedwater deaeration, water stor-
age and preheating applications, a spray-
type deaerator can also be used for steam
accumulation. A steam accumulator is
from the plant is greater than the boiler’s
ability to supply at that time, and accepts
boiler generates more steam than required
for the process, the surplus of steam can
tor and stored under pressure. Loading
the accumulator takes places by injecting
steam through a steam sparger, perma-
nently maintaining the accumulator under
saturated conditions and preventing un-
desirable vibrations. When the net steam
flow into the accumulator is positive, its
pressure will rise. Saturated steam can be
released from the accumulator by reduc-
ing its pressure. A steam-accumulator can
be pressurised and depressurised relatively
quickly, therefore cyclic loading must be
taken into account by structurally evaluat-
ing the design. In particular, the construc-
tion material used, wall thickness transi-
tions and nozzle connection designs must
be carefully considered to prevent exces-
sive stresses and fatigue problems.
Typical deaerator integrations
Due to its high flexibility, the spray-type
deaerator can be adapted to a large variety
of plant set-ups. In general, the efficiency
of the plant is increased by allowing small
temperature differences between the in-
coming condensate and the deaerator op-
erating conditions. Deaerator integrations
commonly occurring are described in this
section.

LC

1 5
LT TT

LP drum 2 TT

TC
VGB PowerTech - Autorenexemplar - © 2015

3
HP
drum
4 3

6
Economiser/
Superheater Evaporator Economiser Superheater Evaporator condensate
preheater TC

TT
Condensate
3 from
30 to 50 °C condenser

HP section LP section

Fig. 4. Typical integration of an internal drum deaerator (IDD) in an HRSG.

>>> VGB DIGITAL <<<

77
 Deaerator developments VGB PowerTech 6 l 2015

0 % (-2 %)
80 %

PC LC LC
TT TC
P LT 30 to 50 °C LT 100 °C
Condensate
from condenser
0.2 bar 1.2 bar LT
4 bar
LP
TC
drum

105 °C

HP section Super- Eva- 60 °C Condensate

Economiser
heater porator 135 °C from
condenser
30 to 50 °C
60 °C
TT

LP section A B

Fig. 5. Typical integration of a deaerator in an HRSG operating under a vacuum (a) and under approximately atmospheric conditions (b).

Figure 1 shows a deaerator integration
commonly observed for directly-fired
power plants. Here, condensate originates
directly from the steam condenser and is
distributed to the deaerator using the spray
nozzle. Steam for the deaeration originates
from a low-pressure steam turbine tap and
is directly fed into the deaerator without
control. The deaerator operates at saturat-
ed conditions and should operate at a tem-
perature at least 10 ˚C above the incoming
condensate temperature to safeguard de-
aeration quality. If the steam turbine trips,
the HP steam produced by the boiler is
dumped into the condenser and partly into
the deaerator.
A deaerator setup in an HRSG which re-
quires a minor level of safeguarding is a
deaerator operating under vacuum con-
ditions, as shown in F i g u r e 5. In such
cases, cold condensate from the condenser
of about 30 to 50 °C is brought directly into
the deaerator (blue line), which typically
operates at 0.2 bar. As the deaerator is sub-
ject to vacuum conditions, extra stiffness is
required. Condensate discharged from this
deaerator (black line) is at around 60 °C
and can be directly fed into the economis-
er. As a steam source for the deaerator, hot
condensate which flashes into low quality
steam, can be used. Condensate flashing
takes place in the water reservoir similar to
the deaeration with steam and contributes
to the deaeration process. Hot condensate
is typically obtained from an economiser.
In parallel, a small portion of steam (up
to 2 %) from a low pressure steam drum
can be fed through the steam spargers to
maintain the pressure. During oil firing,
the deaerator operating pressure must be
increased to approximately 4 bar to pro-
vide a safety margin relative to the critical
dew point. Under these oil firing operating
conditions, the LP drum water enthalpy is
insufficient to provide proper steam distri-
bution in the deaerator. Consequently, LP
steam is used for deaeration by use of the
steam sparger.
An alternative deaerator integration for an
HRSG is shown in Figure 5b, making use of
an external heat exchanger to pre-heat the
condensate. In this case, the deaerator op-
erates slightly above atmospheric pressure.
The setup of figure 5b is observed in many
HRSG’s while the setup of figure 5a has
several benefits and should be preferred.
It has less components, a high availability,
an easy control philosophy and is very cost
effective. This deaerator setup is applied in
an HRSG and is typically fed with flashing
hot condensate and low-pressure steam
(purple line). The cold condensate flow
from the condenser (blue line) extracts
heat from the relatively hot deaerator out-
let flow (red line), in order to obtain an
economiser feedwater flow of around 60 °C
(black line) which is safely removed from
the critical dew point.
Condensate can also be pre-heated inside
the HRSG (F i g u r e 6). The condensate
pre-heater is located at the coldest end of
the boiler. Its inlet condition is determined

5
VGB PowerTech - Autorenexemplar - © 2015

TT TC
Supplementary
firing

Drum
4

HP section Superheater Evaporator Economiser Condensate 2

preheater TC

TT Condensate
3 from
1 condenser
LP section 30 to 50 °C

Fig. 6. Typical integration of a deaerator in an HRSG equipped with condensate preheater.

78 >>> VGB DIGITAL <<<

 VGB PowerTech 6 l 2015 Deaerator developments

by the critical dew point, while its outlet
condition is determined by the tempera-
ture required to obtain proper deaeration.
The condensate inlet temperature (1)
should remain 6 to 8 °C above the critical
dew point. This could be achieved by mix-
ing preheated water from the deaerator (2)
with cold condensate (3). The latter could
result in recirculation rates of 30 to 300 %
depending on the combustion fuel.
Many HRSG’s are provided with a sup-
plementary firing possibility to increase
steam production, efficiency or separate
power and process steam requirements.
HRSG operation with supplementary firing
changes the critical flue gas dew point and
the preheater performance. This will influ-
ence the deaerator operating conditions
and requires another operating philoso-
phy. Due to the versatility of the spray-type
deaerator, combining multiple operating
philosophies can easily be achieved with
the same device.
Conclusions
Boiler life span can be improved by apply-
ing a deaerator in the water-steam cycle
because it reduces the amount of dissolved
oxygen and reduces the rate of corrosion. steam-accumulator. To optimise the de-
Spray-type deaerators are highly flex- aerator design, Stork, in conjunction with
ible and compact. They combine deaer- its major partners, is currently employing
ating, preheating and feedwater storage standardisation and “configure to order”
functionalities in the same device. Due to programmes. This will reduce design cost,
their versatility, they can be adapted to a project and quotation lead times.
wide range of plant setups and operating
requirements. The investment costs of a
spray-type deaerator mainly depend on References
the amount of condensate which needs
to be produced as well on the required [1] Coulson, J.M., Richardson, J.F., and Sinnott,
R.K.: Chemical Engineering Volume 6, An In-
hold up time of the boiler. The deaerator troduction to Chemical Engineering Design,
should operate at a temperature at least 5th edition, Pergamon Press, Oxford ed.
10 °C higher than the incoming conden- 1983.
sate temperature to safeguard deaeration [2] Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E., and Ligthfoot,
performance. Superheated- or saturated E.N.: Transport Phenomena, 2nd edition,
steam or flashing hot condensate can be John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2002.
used as deaeration sources. With the spray- [3] Batchelor, G.K.: An Introduction to Fluid Dy-
type deaerator, oxygen contents of 5 ppb or namics, Cambridge University Press, 1967.
less can easily be obtained. Application of [4] Japikse, D., and Baines, N.C.: An Introduc-
a spray-type deaerator costs a negligible tion to Turbomachinery, Concepts ETI, Inc,
FIND &and
amount of thermal efficiency GET FOUND! 1994.
oxygen POWERJOBS.VGB.ORG
scavenger chemicals are not required. The [5] Budinski, K.G., and Budinski, M.R.: Mate­
riaalkunde voor Technici, Prentice Hall,
most common applications of spray-type 1999.
deaerators are to be found in directly fired [6] Groen, Ir.: Theoretical Aspects of Physical
plants, HRSG’s for power generation and Deaeration, Stork, 2006.
in solar- and nuclear power plants. The [7] Albrink, W.: The Feedwater Deaerator in the
spray-type deaerator design can also be Water-Steam System, Stork Thermeq B.V.
used for steam storage, by operation as a | WWW.VGB.ORG/SHOP
ONLINE–SHOP 2010. l

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VGB-Standard
!
Selection of impulse pipes and sampling lines NEU !
< 8 >

NE W
for water and steam sectors in thermal power stations
Edition 2015 – VGB-S-170-R-41;2012-07.EN
VGB-Standard
DIN A4, 22 Pa­ges, Pri­ce for VGB mem­bers € 90.–, for non mem­bers € 140.–, plus VAT, ship­ping and hand­ling. Selection of impulse pipes
and sampling lines for water
This VGB standard was created to adapt the design of measurement and analytical/discharge lines to the and steam sectors in thermal
power stations
increased steam parameters and the updated long-term parameters.
The VGB standard is a set of experiences and recommendations, which although not always able to
VGB PowerTech - Autorenexemplar - © 2015

fully reflect the state of the art, was nevertheless compiled to the best of our knowledge. It is intended to
summarise existing information concerning specific results in this area to facilitate work
for operators. The VGB standard is a key means of harmonisation and helps encour- VGB-S-170-R-41;2012-07.EN

age improved cooperation between the parties concerned. The utilisation, in whole or
in part, must be agreed between the operator and contractor. Any liability, including
for the material accuracy of the information portrayed, is excluded. It is also the user’s
personal responsibility to clarify any patent and other intellectual property rights. VGB PowerTech e.V.
Klinkestraße 27-31
Fon: +49 201 8128 – 0
Fax: +49 201 8128 – 329

You are requested to notify the relevant VGB office of accumulated experiences, any
45136 Essen www.vgb.org

potential for misinterpretation, inadequacies of content and suggested improvements Umschlag S-170-R-41;2012-07.EN_A3q.indd 1 29.01.2013 13:39:27

connected with the use of this VGB standard. This may then justify any additions or amendments.

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79
 International Journal for Electricity and Heat Generation

600 K 43600
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89/2009
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· ISSN 14
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K 4360
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